The Gulf Islands in the Strait of Georgia are widely recognized as having unique ecological and climatic characteristics and outstanding natural beauty. The high shoreline to land area ratio of the islands and the sheltered waters of the Strait provide considerable opportunity for a variety of recreational activities. However the scenic and essentially rural environment of the islands is currently threatened by the proliferation of residential subdivisions. Existing development controls available to the seven Regional Baords having jurisdiction in the Gulf Islands study area, appear to be inadequate. The central task of this study therefore, is to propose an institutional arrangement called the Gulf Islands Trust, to implement a policy of controlled development for the islands. The observations and recommendations of the Provincial Legislature's Committee on Municipal Matters which studied the islands during 1973, were accepted as the terms of reference for this study. The methodology is as follows: 1. To document the background developments leading to the formation of provincial policy for the islands. 2. To analyze existing similar purpose land use legislation for its relevance to the Gulf Islands. 3. To prepare a model bill which defines the structure and powers of the Gulf Islands Trust. Five pieces of legislation are examined in detail: 1. U.S. Congress, Nantucket Sound Islands Trust Bill, I 97-3. 2. Hawaii, Land Use Law of 1961, as amended 1970. 3. Vermont, Environmental Control Law, 1970 (Act. No. 250 Vermont Laws). 4. Ontario, Niagara Escarpment Planning and Development Act, 1973. 5. Washington State, Shoreline Management Act of 19 7 1. These laws are analyzed on the basis of several criteria. From this analysis recommendations for an institutional arrangement are given which incorporate those structures and powers thought necessary to control development activities on the islands. At the same time the recommended provisions attempt to achieve certain objectives consistent with the normative assumptions of the author and provincial policy. The recommendations are embodied in a model bill for the Gulf Islands which describes the proposed institutional arrangement in terms of certain structures, powers, and functions. The land use laws analyzed in this study are characteristic of the trends towards increased provincial/state control over regional land use matters and the increased delegation of powers to special purpose bodies. Only some of the legislation analyzed seriously attempts to accommodate local citizen input to the decision-making process. The model bill proposed in this study includes mechanisms to protect the island environment and at the same time makes provision for the participation of individuals in the policy formulation, plan preparation, implementation and monitoring stages of the planning process. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Conflicts between the Province and municipalities over the development of Provincial land holdings are a common occurrence in Provincial-municipal relations. It is inevitable that a municipality and the Province will come into conflict because of the differing communities of interest that they serve. This is especially true when, to be effective, one jurisdiction must depend on the cooperation of another. Conflict is often the result of the unexpected impact of a government project. The Provincial Government holds large amounts of land and is a very major developer. Its projects are often large. The municipality is expected to exercise land use controls and must absorb the immediate, impacts created by the Provincial project. Yet the success of any government depends, in large part, on its sensitivity to the validity of other concerns which may exist. For example, traffic congestion, increased parking, noise, decreased property values, pressure to change land use are the types of concerns which may arise. In addition to the concerns expressed by government, citizens have been playing a more explicit role in the decision-making process. This has increased the spectrum of concerns which decision-makers must account for thereby heightening the potential for conflict. The resolution of land use conflict then, is a common situation for a planner. The potential for conflict is increasing due to pressures of urbanization. It is these pressures which have increased the need for greater cooperation between the Province and municipalities in order for them to carry out effectively their respective mandates. The mechanisms for resolving conflict then become very important if the different levels of government are to be effective in optimizing the public interest. This thesis examines the potential of citizen participation as a mechanism for resolving Provincial-municipal land use conflict. There are many possible forms of citizen participation and their effectiveness varies with numerous factors. To determine whether citizen participation aggravates or alleviates Provincial-municipal conflict the author constructed a hypothetical citizen participation model and tested it against a case study. The case study was the proposed expansion of the Shaughnessy Hospital by the British Columbia Medical Centre. The author chose local area planning, a current means of citizen participation practised in Vancouver, as a potentially resolving influence in land development disputes between the Province and the City of Vancouver. It was hypothesized that: The resolution of Provincial-municipal land development conflicts would be improved by the establishment of a local area planning process in affected parts of a municipality. The study method included a survey of pertinent literature and analysis of documentary evidence of a relevant case study. It established the sequence of events and the various communities of interest in the case study. The main source of data was a series of ten structured interviews. These interviews were with representative people with different degrees of involvment in the case project and varying perspectives on citizen participation. To the author's knowledge, so far no attempt has been made to monitor the area planning process with respect to its ability to alleviate Provincial-municipal land use conflict. This thesis served as a first attempt. Consequently generalizations on its effectiveness in resolving conflict cannot be made. However, the findings supported the contention that a consensus building force should exist if the process of conflict resolution is to be improved. In this case the consensus force was the citizen group. The research showed that the effectivesness of citizen involvement, as a conflict resolving influence, was enhanced by organization and access to information and technical expertise. This would enable the citizen groups to present a better prepared case. It was the organizational ability and access to technical expertise which implied that an area planning process would improve the effectiveness of the citizen position in the decisionmaking process. On the basis of this evidence it was concluded that local area planning, in this case, would have aided the process of conflict resolution. There is a lack of data and experience comparing "'existing area planning processes with each other and with other forms of citizen participation. This indicates that before effective generalizations can be made of the ability of area planning to alleviate Provincial-municipal conflict that further comparative case studies be undertaken. It is recommended that the current area planning process be monitored and that structural analysis be undertaken of who makes decisions and how they are made. This is distinct from participation where groups are involved in the process and present their case. However, after their presentation it is up to the decision-makers to make the decision. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The current problem of environmental deterioration is the result of society's perceived independence from nature. Through adoption of a systems perspective, however, one recognizes the need to relate man to his natural environment. In particular the concept of the ecosystem provides a theoretical model that recognizes the complex interdependence of man, land, and living systems. The development and application of the ecosystem concept suggests a variety of necessary changes regarding the traditional view of man/environment relationships and their incorporation into the planning process. These changes include: (1) the necessity of recognizing the symbiotic relationship between man and land; (2) the development of a boundary-oriented view of ecosystem stability; and (3) the need to adopt a planning strategy involving small yet diverse interventions to provide alternatives of action, maximum diversity of public choice, and systems stability. In the present study the theoretical and practical aspects of the ecosystem concept are applied to a specific land-use planning problem study to determine: (1) man-other organisms-physical environment interrelations; (2) the ecological implications of alternative development proposals upon those relationships; and (3) proposals for a comprehensive land-use plan recognizing the integrity of the ecosystem. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

This thesis addresses the problem of resource town instability and focuses on resource settlement planning, assuming that a stable resource community is dependent on the settlement planning approach. The problem is addressed through the development of a new theoretical approach. It stems in part from a synthesis of the two dominant perspectives in the literature on resource towns --the "internal" and the "external" perspective. The internal perspective is expressed in the traditional resource settlement literature. Its goal is a stable labour supply to be attained by a focus on the physical and social attributes of the towns. This literature assumes a stable workforce stems from a stable community which can be achieved through physical and social planning applied at the community level. The external perspective is expressed by the critical resource settlement literature. Its goal is stable labour demand to be attained by a radical restructuring of the regional and provincial economy. The critical literature assumes that the long term stability of a resource community's employment base is dependent on fluctuating external markets over which the community has no control. The flaw of the internal perspective is its failure to address the need for long term stable labour demand. The external perspective is flawed by the absence of a policy prescription for settlement planning. The research methods comprise a review of the literature on planning theory, resource settlement planning and regional development. The proposed perspective is elaborated through a comparison of theoretical concepts with current British Columbia provincial policy as manifest in three recent applications; Elkford, Tumbler Ridge and Northwestern British Columbia. The result is a synthesis of the internal and external perspectives providing an alternative resource settlement planning approach which addresses resource community stability in the long as well as the short term. The salient points of the proposed resource settlement planning approach are-. • A territorial rather than a functional interpretation of regional development and settlement planning based on: - an internal regional focus for development which utilizes local social and economic goals; - a composite interpretation of the region, comprised of social, cultural, physical and economic dimensions; - a conservationist approach to resource use; and - a long run perspective in evaluating development. • The replacement of the goal of community stability by the goal of regional resilience. A resilient region is comprised of economically, socially and politically interlinked settlements which jointly serve the region's population; • A strategic planning process which employs bottom up representation involving local institutions and interest groups. The Elkford and Tumbler Ridge case studies indicate that the current provincial policy; 1. Relies on a strategic planning process, 2. attempts to move towards bottom up representation in implementing settlement plans and 3. is effective in creating short term community stability. But the current policy has not addressed long term stability. The territorial regional settlement planning approach developed in this thesis was tested for Northwest British Columbia. Suggested "ideal" planning actions for Northwest British Columbia are: • A shift in focus from examining settlement options which will best serve mining interests to an analysis of how mining can best serve regional development; • A development strategy which looks at alternative forms of development and the relationship between them and the mining proposals; • The use of the mine projects to encourage economic and social diversification in existing settlements in the southern part of the northwest region; • Greater use of local institutions and interest groups in the planning and implementation phase; and • The use of regionally based criteria in examining the settlement options. Given existing provincial resource settlement policies, two steps can be taken to move towards a territorial regional approach to resource settlement planning: 1. use and build upon existing settlement systems, and 2. use resource projects to foster regionally based economic diversification by planning ahead. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The goals of this thesis are to identify the objectives for creating a Sustainable Community Network (SCN) within B.C., to acknowledge the various tools available to facilitate the network, and to develop illustrative models to guide those contemplating the establishment of a network. Three primary research methods were utilized in this project: literature reviews, group discussion in a focus workshop, and individual interviews. The literature reviewed focused on the fields of collaboration, networks in both technical and social capacities, and coalitions. Four objectives are identified as motives to create a SCN: to provide exchange mechanisms, to organise the "unformalized" field, to create a community of interest, and to be a vehicle for power, influence and empowerment. The emphasis at the beginning should be on building personal relationships over creating an electronic network. Other specific products and services are identified as beneficial for the stakeholders: newsletters, conferences, inventories, facilitation, and a clearinghouse for information. Alternatives for administering the network include a network manager, an administrative body, a governing body, and an intermediary broker. This research helps define networks within the field of planning. They may act as a support system, streamline efforts through collaboration or by reducing duplication of effort, act as a forum for monitoring and assessment activities, and be a source for on-going public participation. Three conceptual models are developed representing a range of possibilities for creating the network. The models are labeled the "Fundamental Network" at the basic level, the "Coalition Network", and the "Collaborative Network" at the most complex level. The need for a SCN is reconfirmed. The network should proceed from a "human scale" and develop the capabilities of the electronic network as computer literacy and technological capacity become generally available. Finally, it is recommended that the network should proceed slowly, building on community objectives and incorporating the diverse activities possible through collaboration as experience is gained. Further research is needed to clarify the potential for networks in planning and management, to better understand the evolving place for computer technology, and to monitor the effectiveness of the networks as they are implemented.

Planning is the ultimate expression of a community responding to growth and change, shaping its future through a collective set of values, goals and strategies. Over the past four decades planning policies and practices have largely focused on issues related to the growth of urban regions. Given the realms of change that will shape communities over the coming decades, these policies and practices need to reorient themselves away from aggregate notions of growth and towards the relevant agents of change. The goal of this research is to articulate a framework for the investigation of issues that will shape communities over the coming four decades; specifically how demographic change will impact on the future of community housing, land and financial resources. Although it presents one region as a case study (the Central Okanagan Regional District in British Columbia, Canada) the framework is intended to be used by any community or region to evaluate the extent of demographic change and its impact on issues related to community and regional planning. The first finding of the framework shows that over any strategic time horizon planning issues will be related to changes in a population's composition rather than aggregate notions of its growth. It is the patterns of lifecycle and lifestyle change that will shape issues ranging from land uses, housing markets and transportation demand to school enrolment, medical requirements or even funeral services. None of which can be accurately represented by the aggregate size of a region's population, as each are impacted by changes in its underlying composition. The second finding is that it is current residents, rather than new migrants to the region, that will direct changes in the age composition of a population. This leads to the assertion that we have a good approximation of the region's future population in those who are residents today: they will be slightly older, wiser and possibly a little wearier. Finally, this research also calls attention to a substantial lack of information. A lack of information concerning the fundamental processes of community change, and a lack of information regarding the economic, environmental and social costs associated with the location, density and timing of future development. Most importantly, current planning decisions are still largely predicated on aggregate notions of population growth, without sufficient information about the external costs and tradeoffs associated with these decisions. The future quality of life in any region will be directly determined by the degree to which both planning jurisdictions and the general public acknowledge and, more importantly, choose to respond to the challenges presented by change.

Complexity theory studies the workings of complex adaptive systems (CAS). A complex adaptive system can adapt and change in response to information it gathers from its environment. It responds to feedback by changing its actions, and develops new activities, learning capacity and ability to innovate. Complex adaptive systems depend on information flow through linked networks of individuals and groups, such as those present in cities or communities. Hornby Island, a small northern gulf island in British Columbia, Canada, possesses the characteristics of a complex adaptive system and is used to provide examples of how complexity theory can be applied and used by a community. Observations from Hornby Island and the use of SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) have provided insight to the applicability and usefulness of complexity theory in the theoretical and local action contexts of community development. Misunderstandings between the scientific and humanitarian backgrounds of complexity and community development theories represent weaknesses and pose some threats to the field of community development. However, complexity theory also possesses strengths that have the potential to provide community development practitioners and communities with opportunities, such as tools and ideas, to better adapt to change. The following opportunities for learning and action within communities are suggested and expanded upon in this thesis: human led creative adaptation; location of mal-adaptive schemata; education for adaptive schemata; reducing and changing mal-adaptive schemata; guidelines and generalizations; and intangibles and legitimization of actions. This thesis concludes that complexity theory is applicable and useful to community development because it strengthens other theories and concepts related to community development; helps frame what goes on in the community; and locates focuses for change. It also provides new tools and ideas for action, to communities and practitioners, to better deal with change and create resilient communities.

This thesis explores the topic of seniors' participation in community planning. More specifically, it addresses the importance and relevance of including seniors, seniors' issues, and seniors' perspectives in community planning efforts, the circumstances under which seniors are most likely to become involved in community planning efforts, and guidelines for a practical process to encourage effective seniors' participation in developing local community plans. To address these issues, the thesis includes a review of the planning literature on public participation, a brief summary of relevant trends in gerontological literature, and an examination of the small amount of literature on seniors' participation in community planning. Two case studies in the District of North Vancouver, BC, "Seniors and the Lynn Valley Plan" and the "Seymour Local Plan Seniors' Forums," provide an example of a particular seniors' outreach process. This process is analysed for its effectiveness in including seniors, seniors' issues, and seniors' perspectives in local community plans and then factors influencing effectiveness are examined. This thesis reveals that the inclusion of seniors, seniors' issues, and seniors' perspectives engenders more accurate planning, increases acceptance of community plans, exercises democratic rights and duties, and promotes self-sufficiency and self-worth in individuals and communities. Seniors are most likely to become involved in community planning efforts when they feel included: when they feel they are fulfilling a meaningful role, when certain emotional needs are satisfied by the planning process, and when they are able to take advantage of participation opportunities, that is, when aging-related needs are taken into account in designing and implementing planning processes. The process employed in the two cases studied, with certain suggested improvements, is found to be an appropriate and effective method of including seniors, their issues, and their perspectives in community planning efforts.

Many regions in the US and Canada have experienced significant growth and development in recent decades. Much of this has taken the form of unrelieved urban and suburban sprawl that has used enormous amounts of land, compromised environmentally sensitive areas, provided few lasting cultural and social benefits, and delivered questionable long-term economic benefits. In response, several senior and regional governments have undertaken growth managementprograms. The general objective of growth management is to control and direct growth and development to avoid, reduce and mitigate negative impacts arising from large scale growth and development in urban areas, and promote the creation of more attractive, efficient and sustainable cities and regions. The thesis argues that the stronger the degree of senior government control - Federal, Provincial or State - over decisions by regional governments the more likely a comprehensive growth management program exists that: includes clearly defined goals; possesses institutional mechanisms to institute growth management; and, utilizes the powers of senior government to help direct and manage growth. The thesis pursues the argument through a literature review and a comparative analysis of selected growth management programs. Analysis of selected cases in British Columbia finds that the Provincial government's growth management legislation and program have been applied in its large, highly urbanized and/or rapidly growing regional districts. However, it is found that the legislation has limited or no applicability to regions experiencing slow growth or decline. A new Provincial planning model, flexible enough to address the needs of all regional districts in British Columbia, is recommended. Based on the concept of a growth and development continuum, an incremental and graduated planning model would give them the opportunity to choose appropriate planning tools, thereby providing the large, highly urbanized and/or rapidly growing regional districts and their local governments with the tools they need to manage growth and change, and slow growing regions and those in decline with the regulatory tools, financial and political support needed to encourage new growth and development. The thesis findings provide guidance to senior and regional governments in British Columbia, Canada and the US to enable them to improve their respective growth management legislation and programs.

The goals of this thesis are to identify the objectives for creating a Sustainable Community Network (SCN) within B.C., to acknowledge the various tools available to facilitate the network, and to develop illustrative models to guide those contemplating the establishment of a network. Three primary research methods were utilized in this project: literature reviews, group discussion in a focus workshop, and individual interviews. The literature reviewed focused on the fields of collaboration, networks in both technical and social capacities, and coalitions. Four objectives are identified as motives to create a SCN: to provide exchange mechanisms, to organise the "unformalized" field, to create a community of interest, and to be a vehicle for power, influence and empowerment. The emphasis at the beginning should be on building personal relationships over creating an electronic network. Other specific products and services are identified as beneficial for the stakeholders: newsletters, conferences, inventories, facilitation, and a clearinghouse for information. Alternatives for administering the network include a network manager, an administrative body, a governing body, and an intermediary broker. This research helps define networks within the field of planning. They may act as a support system, streamline efforts through collaboration or by reducing duplication of effort, act as a forum for monitoring and assessment activities, and be a source for on-going public participation. Three conceptual models are developed representing a range of possibilities for creating the network. The models are labeled the "Fundamental Network" at the basic level, the "Coalition Network", and the "Collaborative Network" at the most complex level. The need for a SCN is reconfirmed. The network should proceed from a "human scale" and develop the capabilities of the electronic network as computer literacy and technological capacity become generally available. Finally, it is recommended that the network should proceed slowly, building on community objectives and incorporating the diverse activities possible through collaboration as experience is gained. Further research is needed to clarify the potential for networks in planning and management, to better understand the evolving place for computer technology, and to monitor the effectiveness of the networks as they are implemented. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate