<p>As a major component of the adaptive immune system, CD4+ T cells play a vital role in host defense and immune tolerance. The potency and accuracy of CD4+ T cell-mediated protection lie in their ability to differentiate into distinct subsets that could carry out unique duties. In this dissertation, we dissected the roles and interplays between two emerging mechanisms, miRNAs and epigenetic processes, in regulating CD4+ T cell-mediated responses. Using both gain- and loss-of-function genetic tools, we demonstrated that a miRNA cluster, miR-17-92, is critical to promote Th1 responses and suppress inducible Treg differentiation. Mechanistically, we found that through targeting Pten, miR-17-92 promotes PI3K activation. Strong TCR-PI3K activation leads to the accumulation of DNMT1, elevated CpG methylation in the foxp3 promoter, and suppression of foxp3 transcription. Furthermore, we demonstrated that an epigenetic regulator, methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2), is critical to sustain Foxp3 expression in Tregs, and to support Th1 and Th17 differentiation in conventional CD4+ T cells (Tcons). In Tregs, MeCP2 directly binds to the CNS2 region of foxp3 locus to promote its local histone H3 acetylation; while in Tcons, MeCP2 enhances the locus accessibility and transcription of miR-124, which negatively controls SOCS5 translation to support STAT1, STAT3 activation and Th1, Th17 differentiation. Overall, miRNAs and epigenetic processes may crosstalk to control CD4+ T cell differentiation and function.</p> / Dissertation

Cancer is one of the most pervasive health problems in the world today. Despite major advances in its treatment in recent decades, conventional therapies have seen limited success. Aggressive, drug-resistant cancer cells can reemerge after treatment, resulting in relapse. Immunotherapy, a strategy that utilizes a patient's own immune system to specifically destroy cancer cells, is a potential solution to this problem. Immunotherapy, however, is limited by multiple mechanisms of cancer-induced immunosuppression. One of the most important of these mechanisms is the induction of Treg, which are capable of suppressing multiple arms of the anti-cancer immune response. In the current study, we evaluated strategies to hinder the deleterious function of Treg on cancer immunotherapy. First, we determined that imatinib mesylate could inhibit Treg function in vivo and in vitro and increase the efficacy of dendritic cell-based immunization against an imatinib-resistant lymphoma. Then, searching for further methods to inhibit Treg, we found that Th-1 cells were capable of inhibiting Treg function and synergizing with a tumor lysate vaccine to treat leukemia. This process was dependent on IFN-γ secretion by the Th-1 cells. While investigating the influence of Th-1 on Treg and the resulting immunomodulatory effects of these cells in vivo, we discovered that they were capable of promoting the non-conventional direct tumor killing function of DC. We determined that Th-1 induce the cytotoxic function of bone marrow-derived DC generated with GM-CSF and IL-4 by a mechanism dependent on IFN-γ. Finally, because our results indicate that the antigen presenting function of KDC may depend upon their cytotoxic ability, and since DC generated with IL-15 have been reported to be more efficient APC than those generated with IL-4, we evaluated their ability to also function as direct tumor cell killers. We found that while IL-15 DC can indeed kill tumor cells, only LPS and not IFN-γ was capable of inducing this capability. These findings contribute to both arms of anti-cancer immunity by impairing immunosuppression with imatinib and Th-1, and promoting anti-tumor immunity with KDC. This double-pronged approach may contribute to further strategic advances in the field of cancer immunotherapy.

As células T regulatórias (Tregs) são essenciais para a manutenção da tolerância periférica, prevenção de doenças autoimunes e limitantes nas doenças inflamatórias crônicas. Além disso, essas células exercem um papel fundamental no controle da rejeição de transplantes. Diferentes protocolos mostraram que é possível obter Tregs a partir de células T naive CD4+ in vitro. Para tal, é consenso que o TGF-? e a interleucina-2 (IL-2) são capazes de direcionar as células T naive CD4+ a se tornarem regulatórias após um estímulo antigênico (anti-CD3/CD28). Nosso grupo recentemente notou que, durante a imunomodulação de linfócitos T pelas células estromais mesenquimais (CTMs), estas eram capazes de produzir adenosina que, por sua vez, participa do processo de imunorregulação. Outros trabalhos indicam que as CTMs suprimem a proliferação dos linfócitos T pela geração de Tregs e que as CTMs induzem a geração de Tregs através da regulação negativa da via TCR e da via AKTmTOR. Evidências apontam que a adenosina pode atuar regulando negativamente a via mTOR. Portanto, acredita-se que a adenosina possa participar do processo de geração de Tregs através da modulação da via mTOR. Além disso, estudos recentes indicam que a ativação de receptores de adenosina, mais especificamente A2a, com agentes agonistas, leva ao aumento da produção de células Tregs, enquanto que a utilização de agentes antagonistas destes receptores leva à diminuição da diferenciação de Tregs. Porém, estes estudos mostram a geração de Tregs a partir de células T naive de camundongos. Visto a grande importância das Tregs no contexto imunológico, a produção eficiente de Tregs in vitro tem importância fundamental para o desenvolvimento de novos protocolos terapêuticos para o tratamento de doenças autoimunes e no combate à rejeição de transplantes. Assim, o objetivo central deste trabalho foi avaliar a participação de agonistas e antagonistas de receptores de adenosina na indução de células T regulatórias geradas in vitro (iTreg) pela ativação de células T CD4+ naive isoladas de sangue de cordão umbilical (SCU) humano. Para isso, células mononucleares foram isoladas de bolsas de SCU e as células T naive foram isoladas imunomagnéticamente. Essas células foram ativadas com beads ligadas a anticorpos anti-CD2/CD3/CD28 e cultivadas por cinco dias na presença de IL-2 e diferentes concentrações de drogas agonistas e antagonistas de receptores de adenosina. Em seguida, foram avaliados os principais marcadores de células T regulatorias por meio de citometria de fluxo e o meio de cultura foi coletado ao final da geração para quantificação de citocinas. Além disso, o RNA total foi extraído de todas as condições de cultivo para a análise da expressão de genes envolvidos na geração e desenvolvimento das Tregs, por PCR quantitativo. O potencial de supressão de células T efetoras também foi avaliado. / Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are essential for the maintenance of peripheral tolerance, prevention of autoimmune and limiting diseases in chronic inflammatory diseases. In addition, these cells play a key role in the control of transplant rejection. Different protocols have shown that it is possible to obtain Tregs from naive CD4+ T cells in vitro. To this end, there is consensus that TGF-? and interleukin-2 (IL-2) are capable of directing the naive CD4 + T cells to become regulatory following an antigenic stimulus (anti-CD3/CD28).. Our group recently noted that during the immunomodulation of T lymphocytes by mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs), they were able to produce adenosine which in turn participates in the immunoregulation process. Other studies indicate that MSCs suppress the proliferation of T lymphocytes by generation of Tregs and that MSCs induce generation of Tregs by downregulation of the TCR pathway and the AKT-mTOR pathway. Evidence indicates that adenosine may act by downregulating the mTOR pathway. Therefore, it is believed that adenosine may participate in the generation of Tregs by modulating the mTOR pathway. In addition, recent studies indicate that activation of adenosine receptors, more specifically A2a, with agonist agents, leads to increased production of Treg cells, whereas the use of antagonistic agents of these receptors leads to a decrease in Treg differentiation.. However, these studies show the generation of Tregs from naive T cells of mice. In view of the great importance of Tregs in the immunological context, the efficient production of Tregs in vitro is of fundamental importance for the development of new therapeutic protocols for the treatment of autoimmune diseases and in the fight against transplant rejection. Thus, the central objective of this study was to evaluate the participation of adenosine receptor agonists and antagonists in induction of regulatory T cells generated in vitro (iTreg) by the activation of naive CD4+ T cells isolated from human umbilical cord blood (SCU). For this, mononuclear cells were isolated from SCU and naive T cells were immunomagnetic isolated. These cells were activated with beads bound to anti-CD2/CD3/CD28 antibodies and cultured for five days in the presence of IL-2 and different concentrations of agonist drugs and antagonists of adenosine receptors. Next, the major regulatory T-cell markers were assessed by flow cytometry and the culture medium was collected at the end of the generation for quantification of cytokines. In addition, total RNA was extracted from all culture conditions for the analysis of the expression of genes involved in the generation and development of Tregs by quantitative PCR. The potential for suppression of effector T cells was also evaluated.

Infection with human gastrointestinal (GI) parasites, such as Trichuris trichiura, affects more than billion people worldwide, causing significant morbidity and health problems especially in poverty-stricken developing countries. Despite extensive research, the mechanisms of induction and regulation of effector immune responses against these parasites are incompletely understood, which hinders the development of anti-parasite therapies. Infection with GI parasite is usually chronic suggesting that parasites are capable of modulating immune responses of their host to prevent expulsion. However, mechanisms by which parasites control host immunity to allow infection are still ill-defined. The aim of this PhD study was to characterise the role of different immunoregulatory mechanisms in immunity to GI parasite infection, with a focus on dendritic cells (DCs), regulatory T cells (Tregs) and the regulatory cytokine transforming growth factor β (TGF-β).Here we showed for the first time that loss of TGF-β-activating integrin alphavβ8 specifically on DCs resulted in protection from chronic infection with Trichuris muris, a mouse model of T. trichiura infection in man. Accelerated expulsion was immune-mediated and although increased levels of protective Th2 cytokines were observed very early during infection, elevated levels of non-protective Th1 cytokines were also detected. Partial depletion of CD4+ or FcεRI+ cells had no effect on the observed phenotype. Since deletion of alphavβ8 on DCs results in decreased numbers of Tregs in the gut, we tested whether depletion of Tregs using a mouse model that allows conditional ablation of Foxp3+ Tregs (DEREG mice) would alter infection development. Although transient Treg depletion at the beginning of infection had no major effect on expulsion kinetics, we observed a tendency for enhanced Th2 responses in DEREG mice. Moreover, even though DC-mediated TGF-β activation via alphavβ8 integrin was essential for T. muris infection development, transient depletion of DCs had no effect on the induction of Th2 responses or parasite expulsion. These data indicate a novel role for the TGF-β-activating integrin alphavβ8 and DCs in regulating effector immune responses during T. muris infection and may contribute to the development of new anti-parasite therapies.

Numerous studies have demonstrated that tumour cells have the ability to alter immune function to create an immune suppressed environment. This allows tumour cells to escape immune surveillance and consequently the tumour can progress. Dendritic and T cells have critical roles in immune activation and tolerance and are thus major targets of tumour-mediated immune suppression. Understanding the mechanism(s) by which tumour cells modulate the immune system will facilitate the development of immune system-based therapies for cancer treatments. In this study we sought to determine the nature of, and cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying, changes in immune status during tumour progression using mouse models of prostate cancer. Detailed analysis of the immunological status in a mouse prostate dysplasia model (12T-7slow) revealed that immune suppression accompanied tumour progression. We found that T cells isolated from tumour-bearing hosts were hypo-responsive to antigen stimulation. Furthermore, we demonstrated that CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells were responsible, at least in part, for this alteration. Anti-CD25 antibody treatment reduced, but did not prevent, tumour growth in either a transplanted prostate tumour model or a spontaneously developing prostate tumour model. In addition, an altered dendritic cell phenotype and an elevated frequency of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells were observed within the tumour mass. Similar alterations were observed in the prostate-specific Pten knockout mice which develop advanced prostate adenocarcinoma. Interestingly, evidence of immune activation, such as an increased frequency of activated T cells, was detected in the tumour microenvironment in both mouse prostate tumour models. To identify factors that may play critical roles in the altered immune cell phenotype observed in the tumour microenvironment, a global gene expression profiling analysis was carried out to evaluate the changes in immune-related gene expression patterns. This analysis provided additional evidence for the co-existence of immune suppression and immune activation. Moreover, subsequent analyses suggested that one differentially expressed transcript, interferon regulatory factor 7, and its target genes might be involved in modulating immune cells and/or tumour progression. Taken together, these studies have important implications for designing specific and effective anti-tumour immune therapy strategies that involve manipulation of tumour cells, dendritic cells and regulatory T cells.

Numerous studies have demonstrated that tumour cells have the ability to alter immune function to create an immune suppressed environment. This allows tumour cells to escape immune surveillance and consequently the tumour can progress. Dendritic and T cells have critical roles in immune activation and tolerance and are thus major targets of tumour-mediated immune suppression. Understanding the mechanism(s) by which tumour cells modulate the immune system will facilitate the development of immune system-based therapies for cancer treatments. In this study we sought to determine the nature of, and cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying, changes in immune status during tumour progression using mouse models of prostate cancer. Detailed analysis of the immunological status in a mouse prostate dysplasia model (12T-7slow) revealed that immune suppression accompanied tumour progression. We found that T cells isolated from tumour-bearing hosts were hypo-responsive to antigen stimulation. Furthermore, we demonstrated that CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells were responsible, at least in part, for this alteration. Anti-CD25 antibody treatment reduced, but did not prevent, tumour growth in either a transplanted prostate tumour model or a spontaneously developing prostate tumour model. In addition, an altered dendritic cell phenotype and an elevated frequency of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells were observed within the tumour mass. Similar alterations were observed in the prostate-specific Pten knockout mice which develop advanced prostate adenocarcinoma. Interestingly, evidence of immune activation, such as an increased frequency of activated T cells, was detected in the tumour microenvironment in both mouse prostate tumour models. To identify factors that may play critical roles in the altered immune cell phenotype observed in the tumour microenvironment, a global gene expression profiling analysis was carried out to evaluate the changes in immune-related gene expression patterns. This analysis provided additional evidence for the co-existence of immune suppression and immune activation. Moreover, subsequent analyses suggested that one differentially expressed transcript, interferon regulatory factor 7, and its target genes might be involved in modulating immune cells and/or tumour progression. Taken together, these studies have important implications for designing specific and effective anti-tumour immune therapy strategies that involve manipulation of tumour cells, dendritic cells and regulatory T cells.

The incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC) is increasing and the prognosis for patients with advanced or metastatic disease is relatively poor. Immunotherapies hold great promise, but deploying them effectively in CRC patients will require further knowledge of the complex cellular and molecular interactions that occur between intestinal tumours and the host immune system. The objective of this study is to understand the mechanisms by which lack of immune cell regulation in the gut can drive the formation of colon adenocarcinomas. In addition, this work aims to identify new mechanisms involved in progression to metastatic disease. Using mouse model systems, we found that aberrant activity of Treg cells deficient in IL-10 can promote inflammation-driven CRC. IL-10 deficient Tregs have increased capacity to drive tumourigenesis compared to their CD4⁺ effector T cell counterparts. RNA sequencing revealed specific upregulation of several genes, including a newly-described cytokine, in tumour-promoting Tregs. We explored cytokine regulation and the tumour microenvironment, and show that the inflammatory cytokine IL-6 and TGFÎ2 are necessary for tumour formation in this model. Moreover, disease is associated with a marked stromal cell signature that is induced as a consequence of Treg deficiency in IL-10 production. Gp38⁺ stromal cells are dominant producers of IL-6, and potent ECM modellers. Furthermore, tumours driven by IL-10 deficient Tregs express high amounts of the pro-mesenchymal transcription factor Sox4. Using combined in vitro and in vivo analyses, we confirm that Sox4 is involved in tumour growth and characterise its expression in CRC patients. Collectively, our findings suggest that Tregs and stromal cells act together to foster a microenvironment that promotes disease progression, notably through the expression of Sox4 in tumour cells. These findings open an exciting avenue to explore the phenotype of tumour-promoting Tregs and to study Sox4 function in metastatic disease.

Numerous studies have demonstrated that tumour cells have the ability to alter immune function to create an immune suppressed environment. This allows tumour cells to escape immune surveillance and consequently the tumour can progress. Dendritic and T cells have critical roles in immune activation and tolerance and are thus major targets of tumour-mediated immune suppression. Understanding the mechanism(s) by which tumour cells modulate the immune system will facilitate the development of immune system-based therapies for cancer treatments. In this study we sought to determine the nature of, and cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying, changes in immune status during tumour progression using mouse models of prostate cancer. Detailed analysis of the immunological status in a mouse prostate dysplasia model (12T-7slow) revealed that immune suppression accompanied tumour progression. We found that T cells isolated from tumour-bearing hosts were hypo-responsive to antigen stimulation. Furthermore, we demonstrated that CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells were responsible, at least in part, for this alteration. Anti-CD25 antibody treatment reduced, but did not prevent, tumour growth in either a transplanted prostate tumour model or a spontaneously developing prostate tumour model. In addition, an altered dendritic cell phenotype and an elevated frequency of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells were observed within the tumour mass. Similar alterations were observed in the prostate-specific Pten knockout mice which develop advanced prostate adenocarcinoma. Interestingly, evidence of immune activation, such as an increased frequency of activated T cells, was detected in the tumour microenvironment in both mouse prostate tumour models. To identify factors that may play critical roles in the altered immune cell phenotype observed in the tumour microenvironment, a global gene expression profiling analysis was carried out to evaluate the changes in immune-related gene expression patterns. This analysis provided additional evidence for the co-existence of immune suppression and immune activation. Moreover, subsequent analyses suggested that one differentially expressed transcript, interferon regulatory factor 7, and its target genes might be involved in modulating immune cells and/or tumour progression. Taken together, these studies have important implications for designing specific and effective anti-tumour immune therapy strategies that involve manipulation of tumour cells, dendritic cells and regulatory T cells. / Medicine, Faculty of / Medicine, Department of / Experimental Medicine, Division of / Graduate

As células T regulatórias (Tregs) são essenciais para a manutenção da tolerância periférica, prevenção de doenças autoimunes e limitantes nas doenças inflamatórias crônicas. Além disso, essas células exercem um papel fundamental no controle da rejeição de transplantes. Diferentes protocolos mostraram que é possível obter Tregs a partir de células T naive CD4+ in vitro. Para tal, é consenso que o TGF-? e a interleucina-2 (IL-2) são capazes de direcionar as células T naive CD4+ a se tornarem regulatórias após um estímulo antigênico (anti-CD3/CD28). Nosso grupo recentemente notou que, durante a imunomodulação de linfócitos T pelas células estromais mesenquimais (CTMs), estas eram capazes de produzir adenosina que, por sua vez, participa do processo de imunorregulação. Outros trabalhos indicam que as CTMs suprimem a proliferação dos linfócitos T pela geração de Tregs e que as CTMs induzem a geração de Tregs através da regulação negativa da via TCR e da via AKTmTOR. Evidências apontam que a adenosina pode atuar regulando negativamente a via mTOR. Portanto, acredita-se que a adenosina possa participar do processo de geração de Tregs através da modulação da via mTOR. Além disso, estudos recentes indicam que a ativação de receptores de adenosina, mais especificamente A2a, com agentes agonistas, leva ao aumento da produção de células Tregs, enquanto que a utilização de agentes antagonistas destes receptores leva à diminuição da diferenciação de Tregs. Porém, estes estudos mostram a geração de Tregs a partir de células T naive de camundongos. Visto a grande importância das Tregs no contexto imunológico, a produção eficiente de Tregs in vitro tem importância fundamental para o desenvolvimento de novos protocolos terapêuticos para o tratamento de doenças autoimunes e no combate à rejeição de transplantes. Assim, o objetivo central deste trabalho foi avaliar a participação de agonistas e antagonistas de receptores de adenosina na indução de células T regulatórias geradas in vitro (iTreg) pela ativação de células T CD4+ naive isoladas de sangue de cordão umbilical (SCU) humano. Para isso, células mononucleares foram isoladas de bolsas de SCU e as células T naive foram isoladas imunomagnéticamente. Essas células foram ativadas com beads ligadas a anticorpos anti-CD2/CD3/CD28 e cultivadas por cinco dias na presença de IL-2 e diferentes concentrações de drogas agonistas e antagonistas de receptores de adenosina. Em seguida, foram avaliados os principais marcadores de células T regulatorias por meio de citometria de fluxo e o meio de cultura foi coletado ao final da geração para quantificação de citocinas. Além disso, o RNA total foi extraído de todas as condições de cultivo para a análise da expressão de genes envolvidos na geração e desenvolvimento das Tregs, por PCR quantitativo. O potencial de supressão de células T efetoras também foi avaliado. / Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are essential for the maintenance of peripheral tolerance, prevention of autoimmune and limiting diseases in chronic inflammatory diseases. In addition, these cells play a key role in the control of transplant rejection. Different protocols have shown that it is possible to obtain Tregs from naive CD4+ T cells in vitro. To this end, there is consensus that TGF-? and interleukin-2 (IL-2) are capable of directing the naive CD4 + T cells to become regulatory following an antigenic stimulus (anti-CD3/CD28).. Our group recently noted that during the immunomodulation of T lymphocytes by mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs), they were able to produce adenosine which in turn participates in the immunoregulation process. Other studies indicate that MSCs suppress the proliferation of T lymphocytes by generation of Tregs and that MSCs induce generation of Tregs by downregulation of the TCR pathway and the AKT-mTOR pathway. Evidence indicates that adenosine may act by downregulating the mTOR pathway. Therefore, it is believed that adenosine may participate in the generation of Tregs by modulating the mTOR pathway. In addition, recent studies indicate that activation of adenosine receptors, more specifically A2a, with agonist agents, leads to increased production of Treg cells, whereas the use of antagonistic agents of these receptors leads to a decrease in Treg differentiation.. However, these studies show the generation of Tregs from naive T cells of mice. In view of the great importance of Tregs in the immunological context, the efficient production of Tregs in vitro is of fundamental importance for the development of new therapeutic protocols for the treatment of autoimmune diseases and in the fight against transplant rejection. Thus, the central objective of this study was to evaluate the participation of adenosine receptor agonists and antagonists in induction of regulatory T cells generated in vitro (iTreg) by the activation of naive CD4+ T cells isolated from human umbilical cord blood (SCU). For this, mononuclear cells were isolated from SCU and naive T cells were immunomagnetic isolated. These cells were activated with beads bound to anti-CD2/CD3/CD28 antibodies and cultured for five days in the presence of IL-2 and different concentrations of agonist drugs and antagonists of adenosine receptors. Next, the major regulatory T-cell markers were assessed by flow cytometry and the culture medium was collected at the end of the generation for quantification of cytokines. In addition, total RNA was extracted from all culture conditions for the analysis of the expression of genes involved in the generation and development of Tregs by quantitative PCR. The potential for suppression of effector T cells was also evaluated.

No description available.