Behaving in novel ways is essential to the development of the types of complex performances described by the term creativity, problem solving, and perseverance. Some research suggests that response variability is an operant and a critical component of novel behavior. However, other account of novel behavior may be more parsimonious. Topographical variability has rarely been examined, nor has operant variability with organisms with baselines featuring stereotypic responding. This study examined the effects of a variability-specifying contingency on the cumulative novel responses of undergraduate students. Using the PORTL apparatus, participants interacted with a ball with a single hand. When the variability-specifying contingency was in effect, novel topographies were reinforced. When a reinforce every response condition was implemented, the participants did not emit any novel responses. When variability-specifying contingencies were in effect, novel responses were rarely followed by subsequent novel responses. They were mostly followed by repeated emission of the same topography, or by other previously emitted topographies. Novel responding did not persist long, although the variability-specifying contingency remained in effect and the potential for novel responding was great. The variability-specifying contingency often resulted in stereotypic response chains. Each of these findings call into the question the assertion that variability is an operant and suggests other possible explanations for the observed novelty.

Two severely retarded children were trained to serve as imitative learning trainers for two profoundly retarded children. Initially, one trainer reinforced the correct imitations of one trainee but not the other. A second trainer reinforced the correct imitations of a second trainee but not the first trainee. A multiple baseline _comparison revealed that initial training produced high rates of imitative responding to both the reinforcing and non-reinforcing trainers. .Generalization of initiative responding to both trainers in a new setting was also demonstrated. Stimulus control of imitative responding was achieved when the reinforcing and non-reinforcing trainers for each trainee reversed those roles. Imitative responding to both trainers was recovered when both trainers reinforced trainees' correct imitations. This study demonstrated the effectiveness of peers as imitative behavior trainers for retarded children, and generalization of imitative responding across settings and trainers.

Research has demonstrated the positive effects on reading achievement measures when content is conditioned as a reinforcer for prolonged reading. While previous research has focused on conditioning narrative texts on the relation to increased comprehension, there is no current research on the effects of conditioning informational texts. Experiment 1 examined whether the effects of conditioning narrative texts as a reinforcer extends to technical writing for science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) content for third graders with and without Individualized Education Plans. We replicated the conditioning procedures used with elementary-aged participants in previous studies for narratives texts. Using a four-step, peer-collaborative procedure, peer interactions were paired with reading activities to condition narrative texts as reinforcers for prolonged reading. Results indicated that reinforcement value of conditioned narrative texts did not transfer to STEM texts. Experiment 2 examined whether the effects of conditioning STEM texts as reinforcer extends to narrative texts. Academic achievement was also measured after conditioned reinforcement for STEM texts was established using the four-step peer collaborative procedure. Results indicated that the reinforcement value for STEM texts did not transfer to narrative texts. Keywords: conditioned reinforcement, narrative, pairing, peers

Studies investigating the use of behavioral techniques in the treatment of health-related problems have recently received considerable emphasis. Problems such as enuresis (Atthowe, 1972; Nordquist, 1971), obesity (Stuart, 19137), alcoholism (Miller, 1972; Sobell and Sobell, 1973), chronic pain (Fordyce, Fowler, Lehman, and DeLateur, 1975·), and asthma (Neisworth, 1972; Renne and Creer. 1976) have been treated by the use of behavioral techniques. Katz and Zlutnick (1975) mention two critical areas in which behavior analysis is particularly applicable to health care: a) rehabilitation, and b) patient management. Rehabilitation involves learning behaviors related to specific physical disabilities, for example stroke patients relearning walking skills, and amputees learning various self-care and vocational skills. Patient management involves increasing or decreasing specific patient behaviors to ensure they follow prescribed treatment plans. Patients with chronic dieases such as diabetes or multiple sclerosis must often be placed on stringent medical regimens. Thus, compliance with physicians 1 requests to take medication, follow diets, or engage in exercise is a vital component of patient management and must be maintained if a patient is to sustain optimal health. In view of these considerations, knowledge of the conditions under which

The present study examined the separate effects of an educational program, feedback, and a token economy on the rate of brushing and flossing in the home environment.

Four groups of 12 rats each received constant medium size rewards of nine 45 mg Noyes pellets prior to nonrewarded (N) and nonrewarded punishment (P) (0.25 rna shock of 0.1 sec duration) trials and either large (L) size rewards of sixteen 45 mg pellets· or small (S) size rewards of two 45 mg pellets following N and P trials in a runway. Following acquisition each of the four groups was randomly subdivided into either continuous N or continuous P extinction conditions. This resulted in a two X two X two completely randomized factorial design with the variables and its levels being L and S Post N reward magnitudes, Lands' Post P reward magnitudes, and N and P extinction conditions. In acquisition, reward magnitude did not significantly affect performance. In extinction, large Post N reward magnitude produced larger resistance to extinction (Rn) than small Post N reward magnitude in the run and in the goal sections of the runway. The Post P reward magnitude did not affect performance in either acquisition or extinction. Higher Rn in the goal speed was reflected by the groups that received large Post N reward magnitude in the N extinction condition relative to the P extinction condition. The results of the present study were basically consistent with Capaldi's sequential theory with regard to Post N reward magnitude but not to Post P reward magnitude.

Bipolar disorder is characterized by disruptions in mood and affect that occur not only during mood episodes, but during euthymic periods as well. At the same time, sensitivity of the behavioral activation system (BAS) has been implicated in the disorder and is a risk marker for it. Less clear is the relationship between BAS sensitivity and positive affect, particularly lower level facets of positive affect. The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between positive affect and vulnerability for mania as assessed using BAS sensitivity. Specifically, the link between daily levels and fluctuations of positive affect and baseline BAS sensitivity was examined. Following the hierarchical model of affect, this study also assessed the relationship between BAS sensitivity and the distinct facets of positive affect. Finally, this study examined whether BAS sensitivity moderates associations between daily rewards and positive affect. Undergraduates (N = 265) from a large university in the South were recruited to complete measures of BAS sensitivity, affect, and mood symptoms at baseline. Using ecological momentary assessment (EMA), participants completed daily surveys assessing affect and engagement with rewarding situations. An exploratory factory analysis revealed a four factor structure of positive affect, consisting of Serenity, Joviality, Attentiveness, and Self-Assurance. Greater daily levels of overall positive affect, as well as the lower order facets of Joviality, Self-Assurance, and Attentiveness, were predicted by heightened BAS sensitivity. In contrast, the facet of Serenity demonstrated minimal associations with BAS sensitivity. The study findings support a multi-faceted structure of positive affect and suggest that certain facets may be more closely related to risk for bipolar disorder. Specifically, Joviality and Self-Assurance may represent maladaptive forms of positive affect, whereas Serenity may function as a protective element against bipolar disorder.

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Observing another child receive reinforcement has been shown by past researchers to produce two different types of effects: 1) facilitative, or 2) debilitative when children coact in a more competitive situation. Since Type A children have been found to engage in more comparison processes and are more competitive, the purpose of the present study was to empirically determine if Type A and Type B children's responses would differ in situations where they coacted with an intermediate status child who received or did not receive reinforcement. Fourth grade children were designated as Type A, Type B, or intermediate status by their teachers via the Matthews Youth Test for Health. Performance, affective behaviors, and written and verbal self-reports about the experimental situation were the dependent measures. Generally, it was found that reinforcement had non-specific facilitative effects on the performance of a dyad, and a mild facilitative effect for vicarious reinforcement was observed. Observing reinforcement was found to negatively effect children's enjoyment of the task, however. Type A children did not respond differentially than Type B children to observing versus not observing another child receive reinforcement, although Type A children's performances were more variable than Type B children's regardless of the situation. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for understanding vicarious reinforcement processes, and Type A behavior in children. / Master of Science

Reinforcement learning occurs when organisms adapt the propensities of given behaviours on the basis of associations with reward and punishment. Currently, reinforcement learning models have been validated in minimalist environments in which only 1-2 environmental stimuli are present as possible predictors of reward. The exception to this is two studies in which the responses of the dopamine system to configurations of multiple stimuli were investigated, however, in both cases the stimuli were presented simultaneously rather than in a sequence. Therefore, we set out to understand how current models of reinforcement learning would respond under more complex conditions in which sequences of events are predictors of reward. In the two experimental chapters of this thesis, we attempted to understand whether midbrain dopaminergic neurons would respond to occasion setters (Chapter 3), and to the overexpectation effect (Chapter 4). In addition, we ran simulations of the behavioural paradigms using temporal difference models of reinforcement learning (Chapter 2) and compared the predictions of the model with the behavioural and neurophysiological data. In Chapter 3, by performing single-neuron recording from VTA and SNpc dopaminergic cells, we demonstrated that our population of neurons were most responsive to the latest predictor of reward, the conditioned stimulus (CS) and not the earliest, the occasion setter (the OS). This is in stark contrast with the predictions of the model (Chapter 2), where the greatest response is seen at the OS onset. We also showed at a neural level that there was only a weak enhancement of the response to the discriminative stimulus (SD) when this was preceded by the OS. On the other hand, at a behavioural level, bar pressing was greatest when the SD was preceded by the OS, demonstrating that rats could use the information provided by the OS, but that dopamine was not controlling the conditioned response. In Chapter 4, our population of dopaminergic neurons showed that they would preferentially respond to only one of the two conditioned stimuli (CSA, CSB) in the overexpectation paradigm. The predictions of the model (Chapter 2) suggested that when the two stimuli would be presented in compound, there would be an inhibitory response if the reward magnitude was kept constant and an excitatory response if the reward magnitude was doubled. The lack of neural firing to one of the two conditioned stimuli, however, does not make for easy interpretation of the data. Perhaps, one of the conditioned stimuli acted as if it were overshadowing the other, resulting in no response to the second CS. Interestingly, at a behavioural level, we did not see increased licking frequency to the compound stimuli presentation, a result that is somewhat at odds with the previous literature. Overall, the results of our experimental chapters suggest that the role that midbrain dopaminergic neurons play in reinforcement learning is more complex than that envisaged by previous investigations.