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published_or_final_version / Chinese / Master / Master of Arts

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This dissertation aims to explore the phenomenon of the worship of abstract concepts in personified form and its development in the Archaic and Classical periods. An introductory chapter surveys previous scholarly literature on the subject and covers some general theoretical issues: i) definitions; ii) problems of sources and methodology; iii) the question of the predominantly feminine gender of these figures; iv) ancient and modern theories on deified abstractions as a class. Six chapters then look at a selection of individual cults in roughly chronological sequence, each exemplifying one or more of the general questions raised by such cults. Themis provides a good example of the very "mythological" deified abstractions of the Archaic period and the problems of tracing the origins and early history of personification cults. Nemesis was probably worshipped at Rhamnous from the sixth century, but acquires unique status in the fifth from an association with the battle of Marathon; the cult of the two Nemeseis at Smyrna, I argue, is a fourth-century innovation. Peitho is often associated with rhetoric, but a survey of her cult associations in a variety of locations emphasises her erotic side, an aspect further revealed in vase-painting. These three figures all have roots in archaic literature, whereas Hygieia, though soon mythologised as daughter of Asklepios, does not appear in any medium before her arrival in Athens in 420 BC in the healing god's wake. Her cult particularly raises the question of how seriously personifications could be taken as deities, since the concept which she embodies is so patently a human desideratum. Later innovations are similarly often dismissed as "mere" allegory or propaganda, as is illustrated by the case of Eirene in fourth-century Athens, most famously represented in Kephisodotos' group of Peace holding the child Wealth, her cult introduced in response to quite specific political circumstances. The problems of correlating archaeological and literary sources are particularly acute in the case of the most "abstract", figure to be considered, Eleos, eponymous deity of the Athenian "altar of Pity"; although the altar dates from the late sixth century, its insubstantial god is probably a later development. From these six case studies some provisional conclusions can be offered on the place of deified abstract ideas in Greek religious thought and practice.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Columbia University, 1936. / Without thesis note. Bibliography: p. 241-261.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Columbia University, 1936. / Without thesis note. Bibliography: p. 241-261.

Thesis (M.A.)--University of Hong Kong, 1965. / Also available in print.

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<p>Hua-yen Buddhism is generally considered as the most theoretical and systematic presentation of Buddhist ideas among the various Buddhist schools that appeared in China during the Sui-T'ang period (589-900 A.D.). Furthermore, its philosophico-religious teachings played a significant role in the religious history of East Asia. In spite of such an importance, very little is known about Hua-yen Buddhism in the Western world. This thesis, therefore, attempts to achieve a proper understanding of Hua-yen Buddhism through an extensive investigation of its central doctrine of dharmadhātu(fa-chieh) as it occurs in the writings of the patriarchs of the Hua-yen school. Part One, as a background study, examines first of all the etymological and contextual meaning of the term dharmadhātu. It also surveys the Avatamsaka-sūtra(Hua-yen ching), the canonical scripture from which the Hua-yen school derived the idea of dharmadhātu as the central theme for teaching and meditation. In addition, it discusses the background and development of the Hua-yen school. In Part Two, the main body of the study, the dharmadhātu doctrine of the Hua-yen school is examined in terms of its development. The basic writings of its five patriarchs and their ideas concerning "the dharmadhātu are chronologically and systematically analyzed in detail. It is demonstrated that the dharmadhātu doctrine can be said to have been, by and large, founded by Tu-shun, formulated by Chih-yen, systematized by Fa-tsang, and elucidated by Ch'eng-kuan and Tsung-mi. Part Three, the concluding part, embarks upon an inquiry into the significance of the Hua-yen dharmadhātu doctrine. It is argued that the dharmadhātu doctrine is not "a pointless exposition of empty words," as characterized by some outside critics, but that it contains solid "philosophical," "religious," and "historical" significance within it. First, it is clarified that the dharmadhātu doctrine is meant to lead man toward an insight into the interrelatedness, that is, the "mutual identification" and "interpenetration," of all the dharmas — an insight which liberates him from all kinds of rigid philosophical preconceptions and dogmatism concerning reality. Second, it is also discovered that the dharmadhātu doctrine of mutual identification and interpenetration is relevant to the formulation of the religious conviction of the "instantaneous attainment of Buddhahood" upheld by the Hua-yen school. Finally, it is verified through concrete evidence that the dharmadhātu doctrine exerted a significant influence on the religious thought of China, especially on the Ch'an(Zen) and the T'ien- t'ai traditions, Taoism, and Neo-Confucianism.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)