Commercial pine (Pinus spp.) forests in the southeastern United States are key to providing fiber for global wood supply needs. Concern has arisen over possible effects of intensive forest management techniques, including row spacing and distribution of woody debris after logging, on plant and wildlife communities. Therefore, we quantified response of plant and small mammal communities in replanted loblolly pine (P. taeda) stands to mechanical site preparation including 2 levels of row spacing and 2 methods of distributing woody debris following harvest in north and southeastern Louisiana, USA. Sites (n=16) were prepared with a combination of row spacing between planting beds (4.3 m and 6.1 m) and distribution of logging debris (piled and scattered). We examined vegetation using various sampling methods, and used mark-recapture techniques to assess small mammal communities in each of 4 replicate stands for 4 years post-treatment. Site preparation involving wider row spacing generally did not affect vegetation structure and composition; or relative abundance and diversity of small mammals. Piling debris in specific locales throughout the stand reduced non-pine woody vegetation, but did not affect small mammal communities. However, the increased woody growth associated with scattering debris throughout the stand resulted in higher lactation-level carrying capacity estimates for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus); due to importance of semi-woody browse to deer in Louisiana. We suggest that row spacing may not be a significant factor when planning implementation of site preparation techniques relative to small mammals and deer browse production. We suspect further research examining later stages of succession and stand development may provide further insight into the tradeoffs between increased woody growth associated with scattering debris and the potential benefits that may result from reducing woody growth by piling debris into certain locales throughout the stand.

White-tailed deer are the most important game species in Louisiana, and throughout the southeastern United States. Likewise, the forest products industry represents the most important agricultural commodity in Louisiana, and industrial landowners frequently lease their properties to sportsmen specifically for white-tailed deer hunting. I conducted research assessing survival, space use, and habitat selection of white-tailed deer on a 3885 ha industrial forest owned by Plum Creek Timber Company. I captured 61 deer in Union Parish, Louisiana in 2009-2010, radio-marked 24 females and 23 males, and ear-tagged 7 females and 6 males. Season and sex interacted to affect home range and core area sizes. Males home range sizes varied seasonally and were 232 ha, 70 ha, and 129 ha for spring, summer, and fall respectively. Female home range sizes did not differ seasonally and were 104 ha, 90 ha, and 62 ha for spring, summer, and fall respectively. Forest openings were important to both sexes when establishing home ranges. Core area selection exhibited a season and sex interaction as both sexes shifted selection in the fall to 0-4 year old pine and 13-19 year old pine stands. Use of habitats within home ranges did not vary by sex, season, or an interaction between them. Males and females chose 5-12 year old pine stands consistently across all seasons. Survival differed by season, but not by sex. Survival rates for adult males in spring, summer, and fall were 0.95, 0.97, and 0.54 respectively. Survival rates for females were 0.95, 0.97, and 0.56 for spring, summer, and fall respectively. All fall mortality was hunting-related, whereas mortalities during spring and summer resulted from unknown causes. The extensive use of bait, primarily corn and rice bran, was thought to influence space use and survival, and further research is needed to determine the effects of baiting on susceptibility of harvest of different age classes and sexes.

Profitability of aquaculture enterprises worldwide has been affected by rising fish meal prices. Plant proteins are promising replacements for fish meal because of their lower cost and worldwide availability. The goal of this research was to provide nutritional information for the development of all-plant diets for Florida pompano by evaluating growth of fish fed soy-based, fish-meal-free diets and assessing the nutritional value of several plant protein sources. In the first experiment, juvenile Florida pompano were fed five, soy-based, fish-meal-free diets containing graded levels of soybean meal (SBM, or M) at 0, 20, 25, 30, or 35%, with the remaining protein provided by soy protein concentrate (SPC, or C) at 59, 46, 43, 39, or 36%, respectively. These diets were compared to a control diet that contained equal levels (30%) of SBM and SPC in combination with 10% menhaden fish meal. Weight gain of fish fed the control diet (ten times initial weight) was significantly higher than gain of fish fed M0/C59, M20/C46, or M35/C36 diets, but was not different (P > 0.05) from fish fed the M25/C43 or M30/C39 diets. No apparent trends in whole-body composition of pompano were found. Differences in growth appeared to be due to decreased feed intake related to palatability of some diets. Results indicated that fish-meal-free diets that contained 25-30% SBM and 39-43% SPC were as effective as a diet of similar composition containing 10% menhaden fish meal. The second experiment determined apparent digestibility coefficients (ADCs) for canola meal (CM), corn gluten meal (CGM), and distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS). A reference diet and test diets containing 70% reference diet mixture and 30% test ingredient (CM, CGM, or DDGS) were used following typical methods for digestibility trials. Apparent crude protein digestibility of CGM (57.2%) was significantly higher than DDGS (20.6%) but similar to CM (38.6%). Apparent energy digestibility of DDGS (30.7%) was significantly lower than CGM (57.1%) but significantly higher than CM (21.3%). The reference diet formulation was hypothesized to be an additional factor that can influence the calculation of ADCs, in addition to the chemical and physical attributes of the test ingredient.

The goal of this project was to develop streamlined protocols that could be integrated into a standardized approach for vitrification of germplasm for all aquatic species. Vitrification (freezing by formation of glass rather than crystalline ice) is simple, fast, inexpensive, can be potentially used to preserve samples in the field, and offers new options for germplasm management especially appropriate for small fishes. Sperm were studied from freshwater fish (channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus), viviparous freshwater fish (green swordtail Xiphophorus hellerii), and marine fishes (spotted seatrout Cynoscion nebulosus, red snapper Lutjanus campechanus, red drum Sciaenops ocellatus, and southern flounder Paralichthys lethostigma). To reduce toxicity, combinations of cryoprotectants at reduced concentrations with incorporation of trehalose and polymers were used to enhance glass formation. For freezing, samples were suspended on 10-µL polystyrene loops and plunged into liquid nitrogen. Thawing was done at 24ºC using Hanks balanced salt solution at 300 mOsmol/kg for freshwater species, and seawater at 1,020 mOsmol/kg for marine species. Quality after vitrification was evaluated by sperm motility, membrane integrity and when possible fertility. Post-thaw motility of sperm in marine fishes was higher (as high as 70%) than in freshwater fishes (as high as 20%). The percentage of membrane-intact sperm for marine fishes was ~20% except for southern flounder (11%). For freshwater fishes, the percentage of membrane-intact sperm for swordtail was low (<12%) compared to channel catfish (~50%). Adaptations by marine fish to high osmotic pressures could explain the survival in the high cryoprotectant concentrations (40 60%) required for vitrification. This research yielded the first successful vitrification of sperm in these fishes and production of offspring from vitrified sperm in channel catfish, green swordtail, and southern flounder. Sperm vitrification offers an alternative approach to conventional cryopreservation for conservation of valuable genetic lineages, such as endangered species, model strains used in research, and improved farmed strains. Furthermore, sperm vitrification could be used to transport cryopreserved sperm from the field to the laboratory to expand genetic resources available for germplasm repositories. This technique could be utilized to reconstitute genetic lines, and as a new option for conservation biology in imperiled aquatic species.

Forest carbon sequestration is regarded as a viable and cost effective option for reducing global greenhouse gas emissions. Several research studies analyzed the effects of joint management of carbon and timber under different even-aged forest management scenarios, and concluded that carbon benefits can alter forest management schedules significantly. However, research specifically focused on the inclusion of carbon sequestration benefits into uneven-aged management has received little attention. This study determined the optimum joint management regime of timber and carbon in uneven-aged loblolly pine stands in Louisiana, and assessed management and financial effects resulting from the integration of carbon benefits into uneven-aged management. The USDA Forest Vegetation Simulator (FVS) Southern (SN) variant was used to generate both growth and carbon data of uneven-aged loblolly pine stands. The generalized Faustmann model for uneven-aged management was applied to calculate the land expectation value (LEV) at every level of residual basal area and cutting cycle. In order to analyze the effects of changes in interest rate, stumpage prices, and future land values, comparative static analyses were carried out at three different interest rates, stumpage prices and future land values. This study determined the residual BA of 60 ft2/acre and cutting cycle of 18 years as the optimum timber management regime of uneven-aged loblolly pine stands at the interest rate of 4% and 2010 stumpage prices in Louisiana. Changes in interest rates and stumpage prices altered the optimum management schedules significantly, but effects of changes in future land value were minimal. In the joint optimization of timber production and carbon sequestration, carbon benefits were found influential in both financial and management perspectives. At every level of interest rates, the joint management of timber and carbon increased the LEV, extended the cutting cycle, and shifted the residual stocking to higher level. The joint management of timber and carbon under uneven-aged management is profitable, and the carbon offset would provide an important additional income source to landowners in the southern USA.

Energy producers, developers, legislators, policy makers, and the public are searching for alternative energy sources to alleviate energy demands and dependency on fossil fuels. Of the renewable energy sources, biomass from forestry, crop, and animal residues offer a clean and sustainable solution to help mitigate climate issues and stabilize energy needs. However, most forests and farms in the U.S. are privately owned. Its important to understand forest landowners, agricultural producers, and poultry producers attitudes and perceptions towards management activities intended for producing bio-based products. Three surveys were conducted tailored for each group. We surveyed 3,500 small to medium forest landowners in Southwest Louisiana, 2,964 small to medium agricultural producers in the Delta region of Louisiana and Mississippi, and 846 poultry producers within the U.S. Results from all three surveys suggest respondents were positive about utilizing biomass for bioenergy. Results from all three surveys suggests a large portion neutral attitudes respondents have towards bio-based issues are due, in part, to low levels of familiarity on the subject. Also, the majority believed that viable technologies exist for converting biomass to bioenergy. However, most believed its a low-value product compared to traditional products. For forestry and agricultural respondents, just over half were willing to participate in management activities specifically geared for biomass production. These older respondents are more likely to agree that harvesting biomass will negatively impact wildlife habitat, air, water, and soil quality. Also, they had a higher propensity to agree that tax credits, subsidies, and incentive programs should not be provided for biomass establishment, selling, and utilization. In contrast, results suggest that larger landowners and producers are less likely to agree that harvesting biomass will negatively impact wildlife habitat, air, water, and soil quality. Also, they are more likely to agree tax credits, subsidies, and incentive programs should be provided for biomass establishment, selling, and utilization. For poultry producers, results indicate that the majority would participate in the sale of poultry litter biomass and biomass markets. Also, poultry producers appeared to have a higher level of familiarity towards biomass concepts and issues when compared to forest landowners and agricultural producers.

The term green job is a relatively new definition that defines employment activities that are likely to have occurred since the beginning of human existence. The push to identify, to quantify and to drive the growth of these jobs has recently been brought on by climate change and the depletion of Earths natural resources. According to the United States Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics, green jobs are either (a) Jobs in businesses that produce goods or provide services that benefit the environment or conserve natural resources or (b) Jobs in which workers duties involve making their establishments production processes more environmentally friendly or use fewer natural resources. For the purposes of this study, seven green job categories were used. 1.Education, Public Awareness, and Compliance 2.Energy Efficiency 3.Green Certification 4.Greenhouse Gas Reduction 5.Pollution Reduction and Cleanup 6.Recycling and Waste Reduction 7.Renewable Energy In order to obtain information on green jobs in the Louisiana forest sector, a mail survey was administered to the known population of the Louisiana forest sector supply chain. Member sectors included loggers, primary producers, secondary manufacturers and brokers/distributors. The overarching objectives of the study were to classify and quantify current and future green jobs in the Louisiana forest sector and to develop an understanding of supply chain member attitudes and behaviors in the context of green jobs. Results indicate that a wide array of green jobs exist in the industry. Each green category is well represented and overall, respondents consider 12.7 percent of employment in the sector to be green. Additionally, respondents forecast that 16.7 percent of employment in the forest sector supply chain will be green in five years. Increased profits, government incentives and regulations and public perception were reported to be likely drivers of green job creation. Respondents claimed to have a clear understanding of the term sustainability while there were misconceptions about the term green jobs and their potential impacts on the industry. Study results suggest that education and, potentially training would benefit forest sector members that participate in the green jobs arena.

Nest predation is the principle source of reproductive failure in many bird species. Understanding nest predation requires knowledge of interactions between landscape characteristics, and the ecology and behavior of birds and local nest predators. I studied nesting ecology and multi-scale habitat selection of female wild turkeys and the habitat selection and searching behaviors of raccoons, an important nest predator, in a bottomland hardwood forest in Louisiana. My objective was to evaluate the relationships between habitat, wild turkey nest site selection, and raccoon foraging behavior. I used first-passage time (FPT) analysis on nightly foraging tracks of raccoons during the turkey nesting period to test the applicability of the method to a terrestrial predator, determine whether raccoons engage in area-restricted searching (ARS), and to identify areas of concentrated searching activity. Mean turkey home ranges sizes varied from 673ha during pre-incubation to 363ha during brood-rearing. Mature upland forests were selected by turkeys year round. Wild turkeys nested in upland forests (n = 35) and openings (n = 6) offering understory cover, often close to forest edges. Wild turkey reproduction was characterized by low nesting rates (60%) and average nest success rates (39%), and nest predation was the leading cause of nest failure (34%). Mean raccoon home range sizes ranged from 177ha during breeding to 120ha during summer. Seasonal habitat selection varied, presumably as a response to spatio-temporal changes in food availability. Evidence of ARS was found in 55 of 58 paths analyzed and could be induced by supplemental feeding, validating the assumption that ARS represented foraging activity. ARS was associated with lower elevations and shallow standing water, whereas raccoons moved quickly through upland forest habitats with sparse understory vegetation. These results suggest that nest predation by raccoons is incidental rather than the result of targeted searching in habitats with similar structure to those selected by wild turkeys for nesting in this system. This represents the first time FPT has been applied to a terrestrial predator and researchers should consider FPT in future studies of habitat use and foraging ecology of terrestrial predators.

Disturbance-dependent birds throughout the United States have recently experienced significant declines due to fire suppression and conversion of wilderness to human-dominated landscapes. In Louisiana, young loblolly pine plantations are an important source of early- successional habitat for these specialist birds. However, changes in management practices may affect forest stand suitability for bird communities that rely on them. Here I examined how changes in two site preparations, tree row spacing [14 ft (4.3 m) vs. 20 ft (6.1 m)] and arrangement of post-harvest woody debris (piled vs. scattered), impacted breeding, disturbance- dependent birds. During four summers in 2006-2010, observers conducted point counts and extended searches to determine species richness, abundance, and breeding activity for birds using 0-5 year old plantations at four locations across Louisiana. Vegetation measurements were also recorded and reduced to three composite variables: structure, evergreen cover, and groundcover, to determine how they might influence birds. Although bird communities increased by all measures as stands matured, I found no evidence that they were impacted by any of the experimental site preparations. Similarly, no vegetation measures differed among treatments, although they were highly influential to birds. It appears that bird communities responded positively to increases in vegetation structure, evergreen cover, and groundcover over time as plants became established and breeding resources increased, regardless of either row spacing or woody debris placement. Therefore, it does not appear that row spacing or debris distribution in this study is an important consideration relative to disturbance-dependent bird communities. Due to the importance of vegetation structure and cover to these birds, however, timber managers should employ other methods that maximize non-competitive vegetation, such as thick herbaceous groundcover, to improve habitat quality for disturbance-dependent birds.

This dissertation details research into the sustainability of industrial, human, and natural systems in south Louisiana. Chapter 1 is a general introduction. Chapter 2 calculates the energy return on financial investment (EROFI) of oil and gas production in the ultra-deepwater Gulf of Mexico (GoM) in 2009 and the Macondo Prospect (Mississippi Canyon Block 252). I calculated a preliminary Energy Return on Investment (EROI) using a range of energy intensity ratios. The EROFI for ultra-deepwater oil and gas at the wellhead was roughly 0.85 gallons, per dollar. These estimates of EROI for 2009 ultra-deepwater oil and natural gas at the wellhead ranged from 722:1. The EROFI of the Macondo Prospect oil reserves ranged from $84 to $140 to produce a barrel, and EROI ranged from 416:1. The lower end of these EROI ranges (i.e., 4 to 7:1) is more accurate because these values were derived using energy intensities averaged across the domestic oil and gas industry. Extraction costs of ultra-deepwater energy reserves in the GoM come at increasing energetic and economic cost to society. In Chapter 3, I estimated the annual greenhouse gas emissions primarily from energy usage at Louisiana State University (LSU). Total energy use is 2.43 million MMBtu resulting in per capita GHG emissions of 6.1 Metric Tons CO2e, which is low compared to many other universities. Chapter 4 estimates the carbon storage of two bottomland hardwood forests located in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Carbon storage varied with microtopography. Carbon storage was greatest on drier ridge sites compared to swale sites. The forested area required to mitigate the 162,742 MT CO2e emitted by the LSU campus community in fiscal year 2007-2008 is estimated to be 12,937 to 23,150 hectares. The low end of this range is based on storage rates at the Ben Hur ridge study site and the high end of this range is based on storage rates measured at the St. Gabriel swale study site. Management for maximum carbon sequestration could lower the amount of land necessary to offset carbon emissions by the university. Chapter 5 contains the summary and conclusions.