Cognisant of the critical interplay between beliefs and practice, the current study investigated primary school teachers' beliefs and understandings about feedback, and the use of feedback to enhance student learning. Central to the investigation has been an exploration of teachers' beliefs about the nature and place of feedback in student learning and of their role and that of learners in the feedback process. Of equal importance has been an examination of the strategies and practices that teachers utilised and ascribed importance to within the feedback process, including the opportunities offered to students in relation to the development of evaluative and productive knowledge and expertise (Sadler, 1989). To facilitate this investigation, Sadler's (1989) theory of formative assessment and feedback was used as a framework to inform both the research design and subsequent analyses. Utilising an interpretive, qualitative, case study methodology the current research was conducted in two sequential phases. Phase one consisted of semi-structured interviews with a convenience sample of 20 experienced teachers. In phase two, three of these 20 participants were selected purposively for classroom observations of teachers' feedback practice during the teaching of a written language unit. These teachers also participated in a semi-structured interview following each series of observations. During both phases, additional data were generated through field notes and the collection of relevant artefacts. Together, the multiple forms of evidence provided complementary information and ensured a rich pool of data. Three recognised approaches to data analysis were utilised, namely thematic analysis, the constant comparison method and discourse analysis. The use of Sadler's theoretical framework illuminated both similarities and differences among teachers in regard to the nature, place and role of feedback in learning and teaching. As teachers' feedback discourse was examined in more detail the influence of efficacy beliefs on the uptake and enactment of new ideas and practices associated with formative assessment and feedback became apparent. Teachers' beliefs about teaching and learning were a further mediating influence, particularly in regard to how the feedback process was conceived and with respect to the norms of behaviour that teachers promoted within the feedback process. The complexity of the beliefs/practice nexus was highlighted in regard to the influence of teachers' tacit, at times outmoded beliefs, on practice. Observations revealed that each of the three case study teachers had adopted many of the strategies associated with contemporary notions of good feedback practice. However, the ways in which these strategies were implemented in the classroom was a matter of considerable variation particularly in regard to the nature of student involvement and the amount of control maintained by the teacher. Findings from this phase of the research supported Fang's (1996) consistency/inconsistency thesis. In two of the three cases there was a high degree of consistency between teachers' stated intentions and their actions while in the third the opposite was apparent. Overall, it was concluded that while all teachers had adopted elements of the contemporary feedback 'discourse' none had mastered the 'Discourse' (Gee, 1996). Looking to the future, it is argued that this Discourse cannot be enacted through the mere bolting on of strategies to existing classroom programmes. To enact the contemporary Discourse in the ways imagined three conditions must be met. Firstly, beliefs about teaching, learning and feedback must reflect those embedded in the Discourse. Secondly, there must be a close alignment between those beliefs and practice. Thirdly, teachers must acquire in-depth subject matter knowledge, which will enable them to create the dialogic forms of feedback necessary for students to become self-monitoring and self-regulatory.

This thesis examines the role of primary school principals as they undertake their role as educational leaders. Part One summarises theories about leadership and places principals' educational leadership in context. Leadership is defined as a social process whereby principals blend biography and context to reconcile positivist, systemic requirements and recommendations with appropriate localised, and individualised, expectations and aspirations. Part Two outlines an ethnographic methodology that justifies a process to gather and analyse data on the work of three principal subjects. This material is presented in cameo form and supported by questionnaire data from a further group of principal colleagues. Principals' leadership is identified as the interpretation of expectations and resources that results in particular actions. This interpretation is sourced in both context and personal biography. Part Three consists of data analysis and findings. The influence and interplay of context and personal biography are outlined. Conclusions are drawn as to the differences between leadership and management practices, and specific leadership activities performed by principals are identified. This leads to a clarification of leadership as a process of control (as opposed to power) that defines, rather than accommodates, the rules of realisation as to appropriate action. Recommendations are made regarding further study into the issues of personal identity, leadership style and the urgent need for principal pre-service and in-service professional development. / Subscription resource available via Digital Dissertations only.

The improvement of teaching is now recognised to be a key to the sustained improvement of student achievement. Teacher appraisal, a central element of performance management, is intended to improve the quality of teaching (and therefore learning). This thesis examines whether teacher appraisal is achieving this purpose, through three empirical studies. This thesis begins with a discussion of the context of teacher appraisal in relation to education reform of the last two decades. A normative model of teacher appraisal, one that focuses on data-based inquiry into student learning, is outlined, and the emerging education context in relation to that model is examined. Three studies, which explored schools' appraisal documents, appraisal discussions and teachers' appraisal goals, are presented. The first study, a document analysis, investigated the emphasis on student learning in the statements of purpose in 17 primary schools' appraisal policies, and the emphasis on student learning in the performance indicators developed to assess teachers against the professional standards. Results showed that while improved student learning was an intended purpose of schools' appraisal policies, the indicators that were used to evaluate teachers seldom focused directly on student learning.The second study examined whether data-based inquiry into student learning occurs in appraisal discussions, and the reasons for the level of reported inquiry. Eleven practitioners (four appraisers and seven appraisees from three schools) were interviewed about their most recent appraisal discussion to investigate whether student learning was a focus of the appraisal discussions and whether student achievement data were referred to in those discussions. Findings showed that appraisal discussions typically focused on teacher practices without exploring connections between those practices and the impact they have on student learning.Only one of the eleven teachers described a discussion that included talk specifically about student learning. Furthermore, there were no reports of reference to student learning data in appraisal discussions. There was, however, a particularly positive response to the suggestion that appraisal should, and could, focus on student learning and on data relating to this learning. This study also highlighted the considerable influence of appraisal goals in determining the content and scope of appraisals. In the third study, 68 teachers from eight schools responded to a questionnaire about their appraisal goals to establish the extent to which teachers' appraisal goals focus on data-based inquiry into student learning. Less than five per cent of goals were found to refer to student outcomes. The vast majority focused on teacher processes and behaviours. Goals also tended to be vague, rather than specific, and were not explicitly challenging. Findings across the studies suggest that only limited attention is given, in critical elements of teacher appraisal, to student learning. The final chapter of the thesis explores two key strategies for closing the gap between current appraisal practices and the 'appraisal for learning' approach argued for here - an approach that focuses on teacher learning about student learning and that is based on evidence. The first strategy involves alignment within appraisal elements, and to initiatives beyond appraisal. The second strategy is capacity building to ensure that personal, interpersonal and organisational capacities necessary for 'appraisal for learning' are developed. This research shows how teacher appraisal policy and practice has been a missed opportunity to improve teaching effectiveness and how it could be reshaped in ways that maximise student learning.

The immense potential of language, for learning, building relationships, as the embodiment of culture, for an understanding of the world and for expressing 'self', is the underlying theme of this thesis. One less apparent aspect of the language of children is their private speech. In this thesis the research questions focus on whether children from diverse language backgrounds attending English-speaking kindergartens use private speech. Further, if so, what is the context, who is present when it is used and is there a response from the person or people? These questions are primarily addressed through observations of eight children as well as recordings of their private speech. An understanding of the context is supported through interviews with the parents and teachers in the kindergartens. The expectations for this research were largely based on the work of Vygotsky, and adapted to the natural, 'free play' environments of the kindergartens. It was expected that children from diverse language backgrounds in English medium kindergartens would use private speech in their own language. While the children did use private speech (unlike the results from Vygotsky's research) they talked to themselves in English using the language that they had acquired from the community, from the media, from their experiences at kindergarten and in some cases from their families. Based on Krafft & Berk's categories of private speech, a significant focus of this research is the categories of private speech that were used by individual children. These findings pose interesting insight into the experiences of the children. This research has shown the child's remarkable ability to tune into the language and culture of context and to do so not only in relation to the socio-cultural context but also through thinking and acting. This study has also provided insight into the early childhood environments and the experiences of the teachers. As the first known research into private speech/self-talk in early childhood in Aotearoa New Zealand it can serve as a spring-board for further research to enhance our understanding of the child's thinking and learning through private speech.

The outcome of demographics which point to a rapid increase in the number of older adults in the population has been widely debated in the literature. However, it has been examined primarily from the perspective of an unrealistically optimistic or unduly pessimistic view of the future, with few attempts to provide other alternatives. This thesis is structured in three sections. The first backgrounds the context of the research question, the relevant literature, the prospect of gender bias in that literature and the historical development of government policy towards ageing. The second section presents a theoretical perspective for social change, examines the development of social movements and puts a case for a new social movement arising out of the increasing number of older adults and supporting educative processes. The third section reports on empirical research based on interviews in Australia and New Zealand with leaders of organisations involved with older adults and focuses on drawing conclusions from the research in relation to the research question. The theory proposed in this thesis is based on the premise that an opportune time in history exists for older adults to contribute to social and political change. However, for senior members of society to undertake this role will require education in some form, to act as an agency or catalyst to initiate an organised social movement. Findings of this research support the view that the majority of older adults remain fit and healthy and do not conform to the medicalisation approach to ageing on which government policy and, to a large extent, public attitudes, have been formed. While there would be problems of organisation in the formation of a new social movement there are no insurmountable obstacles to overcome. The greatest difficulty would seem to lie in overcoming inertia, sectional interests, generating the leadership and developing innovative and imaginative educative processes. / Subscription resource available via Digital Dissertations only.

This thesis explores reasons for New Zealand’s problematic tail of literacy underachievement and suggests one way to address the problem, is for schools to operate as learning organizations. A qualitative research design was used to identify elements of organizational learning in the practices of three very different schools identified as improving the students’ learning outcomes. The research methods included semi-structured interviews, team meeting observations, an anonymous questionnaire and document analysis. An analytical framework identifying five elements of organizational learning, developed from a review of the organizational learning literature, was used to evaluate each school’s ability to learn about their teaching and learning programmes as a result of reviewing students’ achievement information. The research findings identified elements of the organizational learning framework in the practices of all three schools. It was found that whilst the elements of the framework were necessary, the entirety of the framework was most significant in facilitating organizational learning. In order for the schools to learn to improve the learning of their students, they needed to have a well defined infrastructure for the collection, collation, analysis and use of student achievement information. The occurrence of the infrastructure alone did not, however, facilitate organizational learning. The school leaders and teachers needed to apply the appropriate curriculum content, pedagogical and assessment literacy knowledge to the assessment data in order to make sense of it and to use the information to review and refine their teaching and learning programmes. The acquisition of appropriate levels of professional knowledge appeared to be facilitated within a culture where teachers felt safe and confident to challenge and be challenged in their collegial discussions about students’ learning. Rigorous collegial discussions appeared to foster team learning and to be leader driven. When the appropriate professional knowledge was not available within the organization, learning only appeared to occur when the necessary expertise was accessed from the external environment.

This study describes the attributes of a highly accomplished mathematics teacher as reported by the students in their class, and also determines whether high school students can differentiate between highly accomplished mathematics teachers and others. The 51-item instrument, Students Evaluating Accomplished Teaching – Mathematics, was developed to map the construct of highly accomplished teaching as articulated by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards in their Adolescent and Young Adulthood Mathematics Standards. Two focus groups of New Zealand high school mathematics teachers reviewed these Standards, and found that there were more similarities than differences between the Standards and what they would expect of a highly accomplished teacher in New Zealand. Questionnaire items were drafted relating to each of 470 statements in the Standards. These items were trialled in New Zealand high schools, and analysed using factor analysis and item response theory, to select items that completely mapped the Standards. The questionnaire was then administered to 1611 students in the classes of thirty-two National Board Certified Teachers and twenty-six non-Board colleagues in 13 states of the USA. Multivariate analysis of variance and discriminant function analysis were used to establish that students can record and report the difference between NBCTs and their non-Board certified colleagues, and describe what students believe are the attributes of a good teacher. Highly accomplished teachers build a relationship between their students and the mathematics curriculum, as well as with the language and processes of mathematics, by engaging their minds with challenging material and rich tasks. These results provide further validation of the NBPTS certification process, and indicate that students provide dependable evaluations of their teachers. The student evaluation questionnaire could be used with confidence in both the USA and New Zealand to identify highly accomplished mathematics teachers.

This thesis examines the possible effects of the NZQA unit standard approach on the pursuit of higher learning. Through a critical examination of the debate concerning this issue, an argument is mounted that the key questions were left unanswered about the implications of unit standards. This is because the NZQA and the academic community failed to clearly define and defend a notion of higher learning, and in turn, why its pursuit should or should not be considered an integral practice and responsibility of universities in New Zealand. The initial focus of this thesis is a critical examination of the debate emanating from NZQA's decision to include unit standards in universities. In working through these issues within this debate, this thesis engages with the broader issue of how we ought to conceptualise the notion of higher learning, the role, ideals and values of a university, and the pedagogical implications of such a position. This discussion critically engages with the work of Ronald Barnett, Paulo Freire and Martin Buber. It develops and defends a notion of higher learning and elucidates why this form of learning is, and ought to be, considered a role and responsibility of contemporary universities. The key aim of this notion of higher learning is the development of a critical stance or critical being which is oriented towards all realms of experience. Thus it is a pedagogy that seeks to challenge students to understand their interrelationships with one another, knowledge and the world, and is underpinned by a critical, dialogical learning environment. It is a learning process that continually challenges students and teachers to confront the becoming, unfinished nature of reality, and perceive and create in the milieu of fragility and potentiality. Given this notion of higher learning, and having established its presence and role within universities in the New Zealand context, the thesis then examines what effects unit standards might have had upon its pursuit. It is argued that the inclusion of unit standards would have restricted key facets of this learning pursuit. / Whole document restricted until 2030, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

Whole document restricted, see Access Instructions file below for details of how to access the print copy. / Experiences of infertile parents of firstborn infants who were conceived by in vitro fertilisation (IVF) and donor insemination (DI) were compared with those of parents who had conceived naturally. The subjects were 22 couples in the IVF group, 26 couples in the DI group and 51 couples in the normal conception group. Prior to the birth of the infants, quantitative data was gathered through structured home interviews from both mothers and fathers regarding their expectations of parenting, and on their levels of State and Trait anxiety (Spietberger,1983). Information from infertile couples regarding the medical and psychological history of infertility and obstetric information was gathered from all couples. During the 18 months of study following the birth of the infant, information was obtained from published questionnaires about the stresses experienced during parenting (parenting Stress Index; Abidin, 1986) and the development of the infant (Bayley Scales of Infant Development; Bayley, l969). Parents recorded the difficulties, satisfactions and experiences of parenting through a structured weekly diary, which also recorded the support available. Examples of parent-child interactions in structured play situations were video-taped and analysed using categories defined by Belsky (1980). Information from a second structured home interview from both mothers and fathers regarding their experiences of parenting was obtained when the infants were 18 months old. Women who had conceived by in vitro fertilisation had an increased risk of early delivery and low birth weight infants but there was no evidence of group differences in the levels of stress in pregnancy. The IVF group was significantly different in the ways in which they prepared for parenting as they invested less in the pregnancy and expected to have more difficulties in adjusting to parenthood because of age. There were noticeably more similarities than differences between the groups. In general, parenting stress levels were consistent over time except for the IVF group which reported lower stress from the infant's ability to adapt at 10 months. In contrast, at the same time the IVF group reported higher stress from their marital relationship. The cognitive and psychomotor levels of development of the infants were not significantly different. Gender differences in parenting experience were obtained. The results were discussed in terms of their implications for couples in transition to parenthood after assisted conception and the development of the resulting children.

This study is about an educational experience, which encompasses a range of educational knowledge and skills. It is an experience that is relatively unknown in educational research terms. It is also ct comparatively 'secular' educational experience within a 'religious' institution, the Congregational Christian Church of Samoa (CCCS). The Pastor's School (A'oga a le Faifeau) system teaches children to read and write, employing both Palagi and Fa'a Samoa frameworks. The study is also a positive response to the critical and sometimes negative historical treatment of the church and the Fa'a Samoa, especially in their role in the Samoan child's critical literacy experiences. In the light of the underachievement of Samoan children (especially in literacy-reading and writing), this thesis makes two arguments. They are: i) The Pastors' Schools are an important educational system that have escaped attention but which have profoundly significant educational content and impacts. ii) There is a literacy problem in New Zealand that the A'oga a le Faifeau could address for the reported underachieving Samoan children. The content of the A'oga a le Faifeau syllabus for example, includes the teaching of reading, writing, arithmetic, religious and general knowledge, and the Fa'a Samoa This knowledge forms part of the semantic resources, and literacy skills and expertise, which could prepare children for school because some of those knowledge and skills have spans to school-based literacies. One of the A'oga a le Faifeau's most significant educational impacts is the maintenance and retention of the Samoan language.