The quasi-static strength, stiffness, and fatigue properties of cross-ply, angle-ply, and quasi-isotropic vinyl ester/E-glass non-woven tricot stitched fabric composite laminates fabricated from the Continuous Resin Transfer Molding (CRTM) pultrusion process were the focus of this research. The tricot stitch and the 6% vinyl ester matrix cure shrinkage were found to play key roles in the quasi-static and fatigue strength and stiffness properties of these laminates. Laminates tested transverse to the pultrusion axis had greater fiber undulation and maximum of 44% quasi-static strength reduction and 8% stiffness reduction compared with axially tested specimens. While the matrix failure strain was 1.9%, failure strain of these laminates range over 1.91 to 2.08% when tested along the pultrusion axis and as low as 1.29% transverse to the pultrusion axis. Fatigue evaluation, in load control mode, evaluated laminate S-N, stiffness reduction, and residual strength. Measured S-N curves and residual strength curves compared with literature were found most like woven fabric laminates, well below aerospace grade laminates. Residual strength and life analysis using Reifsnider's methodology [43], revealed that the choice of quasi-static strength and stiffness, S-N curve, laminate stiffness reduction, and residual strength shape parameter, J, strongly affect predicted life. Predictions at high fatigue stress/low cycle were more exact than at low stress; the S-N curve was steep initially but at low stress/high cycle was nearly horizontal. The best predictions utilized separate off-axis stiffness reductions of E2 obtained from cross-ply and G12 from angle-ply laminates, the quasi-static strength and stiffness of the laminate predicted, and the average S-N and residual strength curves. / Master of Science

One scheme for reliability-based design that is growing in popularity for civil and naval applications is the load and resistance factor design (LRFD). Our goal in this research is the development of a simulation to predict the remaining strength of structural composites subjected to variable fatigue loading and environmental exposure. The results of this simulation can then be used in LRFD to determine appropriate material factors of safety for engineering design applications. The work so far focuses on modeling the response of the material to fatigue damage only. A general phenomenological modeling approach is described and applied in two experimental studies using E-glass/vinyl ester composite materials. Strength distributions are modeled using Weibull statistics and residual strength is modeled using a strength-life equal rank assumption and a Monte-Carlo style simulation. The model provides good residual strength distribution fits to constant amplitude fatigue data and worked well for ordered block spectrum loading using a 735,641 cycle, 22 stress level spectrum. However, applying a randomized spectrum produced unexpected results with every specimen failing after 200,000 to 400,000 cycles while the model predicts identical residual strength when compared with the block loading case. This work points to a need for focus on developing a better understanding of load order impacts in design of composite structures based on constant amplitude fatigue tests. A future approach toward more detailed micro-mechanics fatigue damage modeling is suggested to enable better modeling of residual strength of laminates subjected to random loading fatigue. / Master of Science

This thesis presents the experimental and analytical results to investigate the effect of corrosion on the mechanical properties of reinforcing bars and concrete beams, with particular reference to their ductility. In the experimental works, specimens were electrochemically corroded, before they were loaded to failure. In the finite element analysis, the corrosion of reinforcement was modelled as either internal pressure or radial expansion around corroded bars. The study indicates that the amount of corrosion to cause cracking at the bar and concrete surfaces almost linearly increased with the bar diameter and ratio of cover to diameter, respectively. No matter whether concrete cover c increased or bar distance S decreased, once the ratio of S / c became less than 2.5, corrosion cracks first propagated internally between the bars and caused delamination. Although corrosion did not alter the shape of force-extension curves substantially, it decreased bar strength and, especially, ductility greatly. Furthermore, although the reductions of strengths were identical, the ductility of bars corroded in concrete decreased more rapidly than that of bare corroded bars. Corrosion decreased beam strength and altered its ductility and failure mode. When the cracking of compressive concrete or the reduction of tensile bar area dominated beam response, corrosion increased beam ductility and caused a beam to fail in a less brittle and even ductile manner. When the deterioration of bond strength or the reduction of steel ductility controlled beam behaviour, however, corrosion decreased beam ductility and led the beam to fail in a less ductile and even brittle manner. There is a concern regarding the ductility of reinforcing bars and under-reinforced beams if the amount of corrosion exceeds 100/0, since bar ultimate strain decreased below the minimum requirements prescribed in the Model Code 90 for situations requiring high ductility.

The purpose of thesis is aimed to predict the residual stiffness and residual strength of a composite laminate by adopting the method of cumulative damage theories numerically. In association with the experimental work the numerical result can be verified in comparison. The fatigue data in composites are well known more scattered than those in conventional metals, because the material properties are complicated due to nonhomogeneity and anisotropy. Until now there exists very few unified theories to model composite fatigue properties. Most of them are semi-empirical expressions fitted by selecting material characteristic values. This work tries to make a precise prediction with hopefully saving time, money and manpower in future experiments. On the aspect of numerical analysis, we employ finite element method incorporated with the software of ANSYS to generate 3-D finite element model and obtain the ultimate stress of cross-ply [0/90]4s and quasi-isotropic [0/+45/90/-45] laminates by Tsai-Wu failure criterion. It is assumed that the damage due to fatigue cycles is equal to the damage of stiffness and strength, in association with Miner¡¦s Rule and cumulative damage theories we obtain the residual stiffness and strength. The numerical result in comparison with the available empirical data is found acceptably well. Finally, this study can be concluded as follows. The error of ultimate stress is 3.84 % in cross-ply[0/90]4s , and 8.38 % in quasi-isotropic[0/45/90/-45]2s laminates. The error of ultimate stress in centrally notched cross-ply[0/90]4s is 0.4 %, and 22.4 % in centrally notched quasi-isotropic laminates. As the fatigue cycles increasing, the residual stiffness and residual strength of the laminates are all decreasing. The decreasing rate is very slight at first and intermediate stages, whilst it is much faster near the last stage. It is found that the prediction of residual strength is more accurate in the case of maximum stress of 60% ultimate stress than that of 80% ultimate stress.

Concrete filled steel hollow structural (CFS) sections are increasingly used to support large compressive loads in buildings, with the concrete infill and the steel tube working together to yield several benefits both at ambient temperature and during a fire. These members are now widely applied in the design of highly optimized multi-storey and high rise buildings where fire resistance ratings of two or more hours may be required. Whilst the response and design of these sections at ambient temperatures is reasonably well understood, their response in fire, and thus their fire resistance design, is less well established. Structural fire resistance design guidance is available but has been developed based on tests of predominantly short, concentrically-loaded, small-diameter columns in braced frames using normal strength concrete. The current prescriptive guidance is limited and the design of CFS columns is thus often based on a detailed performance based approach, which can be time consuming and expensive and which is generally not well supported by a deep understanding of CFS columns’ behaviour in real fires. This thesis aims to understand the fundamental thermal and mechanical factors at play within these sections so as to provide guidance on how to improve their design for fire resistance when applied either as unprotected or protected sections. A meta-analysis of available furnace test data is used to demonstrate that current guidance fails to capture the relevant mechanics and thus poorly predicts fire resistance. It is also demonstrated that the predictive abilities of the available design standards vary with physical characteristics of the CFS section such as shape and size. A factor which has been observed in furnace tests on CFS sections but which is not accounted for in available guidance is the formation of an air gap between the steel tube and the concrete core due to differential expansion; this affects their structural response in fire. The insulating effect of air gap formation has not previously been addressed in literature and an experimental program is presented to systematically assess the effects of a gap on the heat transfer through the section; showing that the presence of even a 1 mm gap is important. To explicitly assess the heat transfer response within both unprotected and fire protected (i.e. insulated) CFS sections, 34 large scale standard furnace tests were performed in partnership with an industry sponsor. Fourteen tests on large scale unloaded unprotected CFS sections are presented to assess current capability to predict the thermal response and to assess the effects of different sectional and material parameters on heating. New best practice thermal modelling guidance is suggested based on comparison between the models and observed temperatures from the tests. Twenty CFS specimens of varying size and shape, protected with different types and thicknesses of intumescent paint fire insulation, were also tested unloaded in a furnace to understand the thermal evolution within protected CFS sections and to develop design guidance to support application of intumescent coatings in performance based fire resistance design of CFS sections. These tests demonstrate that the intumescent coatings were far more effective than expected when applied to CFS sections, and that current methods of designing the coatings’ thickness are overly conservative. The reason for this appears to be that the calculation of effective section factor which is used in the prescription of intumescent coating thicknesses is based on the thermal response of unprotected CFS sections which display fundamentally different heating characteristics from protected sections due to the development of a thermal gradient in the concrete core. It is also demonstrated (by calculation supported by the testing presented herein) that the steel failure temperature (i.e. limiting temperature) of an unprotected CFS column in fire is significantly higher than one which is protected; procedures to determine the limiting temperature of protected sections are suggested. Finally, the residual strength of fire-exposed CFS columns is examined through structural testing of 19 of the 34 fire tested columns along with unheated control specimens. The results provide insights into the residual response of unprotected and protected CFS section exposed to fire, and demonstrate a reasonable ability to calculate their residual structural capacity. The work presented in this thesis has shed light on the ability of available guidance to rationally predict the thermal and structural response to fire of CFS columns, has improved the understanding of the thermal evolution within protected and unprotected CFS sections in fire, has provided best-practice guidance and material input parameters for both thermal and structural modelling of CFS sections, and has improved understanding of the residual capacity of CFS sections after a fire.

ABSTRACT AS-4 carbon fibers reinforced polyetheretherketone (PEEK) composite materials have been widely used in aerospace industry because of longer fatigue life, high specific stiffness and strength. The thesis is aimed to investigate the residual strength, residual stiffness and mechanical properties of thermoplastic AS-4/PEEK composite laminates subjected to tension-tension (T-T) cyclic loading at room temperature. We adopt modified diaphragm forming method by controlling temperature, pressure, vacuum and time conditions according to the obtained beast curing process to form composite laminates of low crystallinity, transcrystallinity and good fiber / matrix interfaces. Two common type of laminates are used, such as cross-ply [0/90]4S and quasi-isotropic [0/+45/90/-45]2S. Static tension test is performed to measure the elastic modulus and ultimate strength. And T-T fatigue test is conducted with maximum stress of 60% and 80% ultimate strength to find the residual strength and stiffness. Then, through the observation of failure surfaces of composite laminates we understand the failure initiation and mechanism by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The results of experiment can be concluded as follows. The ultimate strength, elastic modulus and fatigue strength of cross-ply composite laminates are larger than those of quasi-isotropic. As centrally notched, the net area of the specimen is reduced, the ultimate strength and fatigue strength of composite materials are lower. The residual strength, adopted to describe the damage process, is monotonically decreasing with increasing of applied cycles. It is found that the residual strength of cross-ply laminates is larger than that of quasi-isotropic laminates. However, the residual stiffness has little change with increasing of applied cycles.

Θέμα της παρούσας διατριβής είναι η μελέτη του φαινομένου απομείωσης της στατικής αντοχής των συνθέτων υλικών (FRP) λόγω κόπωσης και η εφαρμογή των αποτελεσμάτων σε διαδικασίες δομικού σχεδιασμού. Στο πρώτο μέρος της εργασίας παρουσιάζονται διάφορα δημοσιευμένα φαινομενολογικά πρότυπα εναπομένουσας αντοχής, μερικά των οποίων έχουν τροποποιηθεί για να γενικευθούν οι προβλέψεις τους, καθώς και μια νέα μεθοδολογία για παραγωγή προβλέψεων εναπομένουσας αντοχής συγκεκριμένης αξιοπιστίας. Τα πρότυπα αυτά εφαρμόζονται τόσο σε νέα όσο και σε δημοσιευμένα πειραματικά δεδομένα, που αφορούν ένα μεγάλο εύρος συνθέτων υλικών και διαστρωματώσεων. Οι διαδικασίες για την εφαρμογή κάθε προτύπου επιλέγονται με βάση την απλότητα και την ευκολία στην υλοποίηση, έτσι ώστε να μην απαιτείται μεγάλος αριθμός πειραματικών δεδομένων για την εφαρμογή τους. Οι προβλέψεις των προτύπων, τόσο όσον αφορά τις ντετερμινιστικές καμπύλες απομείωσης της στατικής αντοχής όσο και την πρόβλεψη των στατιστικών χαρακτηριστικών της εναπομένουσας αντοχής, αξιολογούνται με στόχο την επιλογή συγκεκριμένων διαδικασιών, εφαρμόσιμων στον σχεδιασμό κατασκευών από σύνθετα υλικά που υφίστανται κοπωτικά φορτία. Μετά την επιλογή ενός αριθμού αξιόπιστων προτύπων από αυτά που παρουσιάστηκαν στο πρώτο μέρος της διατριβής, η εναπομένουσα αντοχή ενσωματώνεται σε μεθοδολογίες πρόβλεψης κοπωτικής ζωής υπό κυκλικά φορτία μεταβλητού εύρους τάσης, Variable Amplitude (VA). Η επίδραση καθενός από τα αυτόνομα στάδια που συνθέτουν τέτοιες μεθοδολογίες, δηλαδή η μέθοδος μέτρησης κύκλων (Cycle Counting) και το διάγραμμα σταθερής ζωής (Constant Life Diagram, CLD), εξετάζεται λεπτομερώς παράλληλα με το ενδεχόμενο αντικατάστασης του κανόνα Palmgren-Miner, σαν μέτρο συσσώρευσης βλάβης, από μεθόδους που βασίζονται στην εναπομένουσα αντοχή. Οι παραγόμενες προβλέψεις αξιολογούνται μέσω πειραμάτων σε πολύστρωτες διατάξεις [04]T και [±45]S υπό την επίδραση τριών διαφορετικών κοπωτικών φασμάτων που έχουν προκύψει είτε μέσω της επεξεργασίας μετρήσεων φόρτισης πτερυγίων σε λειτουργία (WISPER και NEW WISPER) είτε από αριθμητική αερο-ελαστική προσομοίωση (MWIND). Το τελευταίο βήμα περιλαμβάνει τη συμβολή στην ανάπτυξη και υλοποίηση του αλγόριθμου FADAS (FAtigue DAmage Simulator) σε περιβάλλον MATLAB. Ο αλγόριθμος υπολογίζει την επίπεδη εντατική κατάσταση που αναπτύσσεται σε κάθε στρώση της πλάκας κατά την κόπωση, μέσω θεωρίας πολυστρώτων πλακών (Classical Lamination Theory, CLT), προσομοιώνει την υποβάθμιση της αντοχής και της δυσκαμψίας και εφαρμόζει αρχές προοδευτικής βλάβης (progressive damage), βάσει του κριτηρίου αστοχίας του Puck, για την πρόβλεψη της αστοχίας πολυστρώτων διατάξεων υπό οποιαδήποτε κοπωτική φόρτιση. Προβλέψεις του αλγόριθμου FADAS, μετά την ρύθμιση των παραμέτρων βάσει του υλικού αναφοράς, συγκρίνονται με πειράματα κόπωσης σταθερού εύρους πάνω σε τρεις τύπους δοκιμίων. Ο πρώτος είναι μια πολύστρωτη διάταξη [(±45/0)4/±45]T υπό κόπωση σε λόγο τάσεων R=0.1 και R=-1 και οι άλλοι δύο είναι δοκίμια κομμένα υπό γωνία 10° και 60° από την ίδια πολύστρωτη, που υποβάλλονται σε εναλλασσόμενη κόπωση (R=-1), έτσι ώστε ο αλγόριθμος να αξιολογηθεί για διάφορους συνδυασμούς επιβαλλόμενων φορτίσεων και τύπων βλάβης (damage modes). / Subject of this dissertation is the investigation of the static strength degradation phenomenon caused by fatigue in FRP composite materials and its integration to structural design procedures. In the first part of the study, several phenomenological residual strength models from literature, some of them modified to enhance their performance, along with a newly proposed methodology for reliability based residual strength prediction, are implemented to both the experimental data produced as well as to published data referring to a wider range of materials and lay-ups. The implementation procedures proposed are oriented towards simplicity and minimization of the required experimental effort. Models predictions, regarding both deterministic strength degradation behavior and statistical characteristics of residual strength, are assessed in order to clarify the predictive ability of each method and propose specific engineering solutions for the prediction of residual strength after fatigue. Once concluded on a number of efficient engineering models, in the second part of this work, residual strength is integrated in life and residual strength prediction methodologies. As a first step, fatigue life prediction of macroscopically studied composite laminates under variable amplitude (VA) loading is attempted. The effect of each module of the state-of-the-art life prediction schemes, i.e. the counting method and constant life diagram (CLD) is investigated along with the possible benefits from incorporating residual strength as damage accumulation metric instead of the commonly used Palmgren-Miner rule. Predictions are evaluated through tests performed on [04]T and [±45]S laminates of the reference material, under three different loading spectra extracted either from processing strain measurements on operating Wind Turbine Rotor Blades (WISPER and NEW WISPER) or from aero-elastic simulations (MWIND). As a subsequent step, the FADAS (FAtigue DAmage Simulator) life prediction methodology is developed and implemented in computer code. The algorithm, takes into account the plane stress conditions developing into each ply during fatigue by means of classical lamination theory, models the ply-by-ply degradation of strength and stiffness and implements progressive damage principles, based on Puck failure criterion, to predict failure of a laminate after arbitrary cyclic loading. Predictions of the FADAS algorithm, once its parameters are tuned accordingly for the reference UD material, are compared with constant amplitude (CA) fatigue tests performed on three types of specimens: The first consist of a multidirectional (MD) laminate of [(±45/0)4,±45]T lay-up under R=0.1 and R=-1 cyclic loads and the other two are 10° and 60° off-axis coupons cut from the same laminate under R=-1, in an effort to validate the algorithm under various combinations of imposed stresses and induced damage modes.

No description available.

In February of 2017 after a period of heavy rainfall, a slope destabilized behind Fremont Hall on the campus of Cal Poly San Luis Obispo. The geology of this slope stability failure is the Franciscan Complex. The Franciscan Complex, when weathered in place, results in clay soil that makes up the typical soil mantle on the hills throughout the region. Peak strength is the typical parameter tested to assess the strength of the soil. For the Franciscan-derived clay, the residual strength is the focus of this study to understand slope failure since the clay is the weakest portion of the matrix in the Franciscan Complex. Both intact and remolded specimens were processed from the samples obtained from the slide for laboratory testing. The tested material is considered representative of the soil found in the Franciscan Complex along the California coast and other similar regions worldwide where the presence of this mélange results in slope instabilities. Three different shearing tests were performed to study the residual strength: direct shear reversal, ring shear, and large-scale direct shear reversal. Sampling soil from the slide took place twice: once in 2017 and once in 2019. A block of soil sampled in 2017 was taken after the toe of the slope was cut for reconstruction which resulted in an exposed slide plane. In 2019, additional samples were retrieved near the toe of the slope after subsequent failure of the slope. Although the material was assumed to be from the slide plane, there is a possibility it may have originated from the surrounding matrix. Intact and remolded specimens were tested in direct shear reversal tests, and remolded specimens were tested in ring shear tests. The 2019 source was tested in the large-scale direct shear reversal tests because the material obtained during 2017 was not enough to replicate the large specimen. Remolded specimens were prepared by passing through sieve No. 40. A secondary set of tests were performed on specimens prepared by passing through sieve No. 200. When comparing remolded against intact specimens, the clasts within the intact material exhibited an influence on the residual strength by an approximate difference of 20%. The results also indicated the liquid limit (LL) had an impact on the residual strength; higher value LL exhibited lower residual strength, and lower value LL exhibited higher residual strength. When comparing the laboratory results against in situ CPT tests, the values from the CPT fell within the range of the laboratory residual strength corresponding to the slide’s depth of movement. The results from testing these specimens showed the soil obtained directly from the slide failure exhibited a residual strength represented as friction angle of 14° ± 2° for intact soil specimens, 11° ± 3° for remolded specimens of the 2017 failure plane passing through No. 40 sieve, and 22° ± 2° for remolded specimens of the 2019 sample location passing though No. 40 sieve. The remolded specimens passing through sieve No. 200 produced even lower results. However, since all clasts were removed by the No. 200 sieve, those results are not considered representative of field conditions. Based on the test results, and the infinite slope limit equilibrium slope stability analysis, a median range of residual strength for this slide is approximately 12.5 to 14.0°.

When a clay soil is sheared, clay particles along the shear plane become aligned in the direction of shear, forming "slickensided" surfaces. Slickensided surfaces are often observed along the sliding plane in field landslides. Because the clay particles along a slickensided surface are already aligned in the direction of shear, the available shear resistance is significantly less than that of the surrounding soil. During an earthquake, ground shaking often causes landslide movement. For existing landslides or repaired landslides that contain slickensided rupture surfaces, it is reasonable to expect that the movement will occur along the existing slickensided surfaces, because they are weaker than the surrounding soil. The amount of movement that occurs is controlled by the dynamic resistance that can be mobilized along the slickensided surfaces. The objective of this study was to investigate, through laboratory strength tests and centrifuge model tests, the shearing resistance that can be mobilized on slickensided rupture surfaces in clay slopes during earthquakes. A method was developed for preparing slickensided rupture surfaces in the laboratory, and a series of ring shear tests, direct shear tests, and triaxial tests was conducted to study the static and cyclic shear resistance of slickensided surfaces. Two dynamic centrifuge tests were also performed to study the dynamic shear behavior of slickensided clay slopes. Newmark's method was used to back-calculate cyclic strengths from the centrifuge data. Test results show that the cyclic shear resistance that can be mobilized along slickensided surfaces is higher than the drained shear resistance that is applicable for static loading conditions. These results, coupled with a review of existing literature, provide justification for using cyclic strengths that are at least 20% larger than the drained residual shear strength for analyses of seismic stability of slickensided clay slopes. This represents a departure from the current state of practice, which is to use the drained residual shear strength as a "first-order approximation of the residual strength friction angle under undrained and rapid loading conditions" (Blake et al., 2002). / Ph. D.