The aim of this research was to develop an instrument that fills a niche in geophysical instrumentation for a tool that is fast, non-contact or minimal contact, and specifically optimised for discrete, near-surface, electrically resistive targets in resistive and conductive environments. This aim was sought to be achieved through the development of a new Capacitive Array Resistivity with Inductive Source (CARIS) system. Two CARIS systems were produced and thoroughly tested. A first prototype instrument CARIS-1, operating at 100KHz, was developed for proof of concept in the laboratory and initial field testing. A second prototype CARIS-2, operating at 5kHz, was developed for further fielding testing and trial mapping experiments. Several major conclusions have been reached through the development and testing of the CARIS systems. Firstly, the CARIS system can clearly detect objects in a conductive homogeneous liquid, with high repeatability of data. This result reinforced the concept of the CARIS method, and established the stability of the instrumentation in laboratory environments. The approach was validated by close correlation between measurements and modelling. Secondly, the CARIS system is able to measure responses to near-surface conductivity variation in field conditions with high repeatability. Data collected also showed spatial consistency with GPR, Resistivity and mapped culture. It was determined that properties of the near surface, such as moisture content and soil consolidation, can significantly affect the electrical homogeneity of the medium and thus the uniformity of the background reading. The CARIS systems thus had a limitation that they proved to be quite sensitive to variations of this nature. Thirdly, foll owing from the second conclusion, although the aim of the CARIS system was to detect the presence of discrete buried objects, CARIS proved to be more responsive to the effects of the burial process rather than the objects themselves. It was concluded therefore that the method of excavation, burial, and refill material were of high significance in CARIS interpretation. This conclusion was reinforced by the results of theoretical modelling which showed that shallow boundaries of small conductivity contrast could quite easily produce more significant anomalies than target objects which are deeper and have higher contrast.

Permanent electrode arrays were set up at ten monitoring sites from Whitehorse, Yukon, to Fort St. John, British Columbia, in order to gain a clearer perspective of the effectiveness of electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) monitoring over an annual cycle of freezing and thawing. This research forms part of a longer-term project that is attempting to use ERT to examine changes in permafrost resulting from climate change. Inter-site and intra-site variability were examined by installing and maintaining data-loggers to monitor active layer and shallow permafrost temperatures, air temperatures, and snow depths at each site from August 2010 – August 2011. Additional site information was collected on each ERT survey date, including frost table depths, snow depths, and vegetation heights. Based on nearby community records, the climate in the region has been warming by a rate of 0.3 to 0.5 °C per decade since 1970. The permafrost at all ten sites was characteristic of sporadic discontinuous and isolated patches permafrost zones, and is classified as Ecosystem-protected. Nine of the ten permafrost sites had permafrost that was thinner than the 14 or 7 m penetration depth of the ERT survey (three-layer system consisting of an active layer, permafrost, and sub-permafrost perennially unfrozen zone). The most predictable results were achieved at the two-layer system site (active layer overlying permafrost to the base of the profile) in each of its virtual resistivity boreholes, relative resistivity change comparisons, and mean near-surface apparent resistivity progressions. ERT is an effective method of delineating permafrost boundaries in thin permafrost environments and does show strength when monitoring areas of seasonally frozen ground. Repeat surveys at a site indicate seasonal changes in three-layer conditions, but not as predictably as those in a two-layer system. In order to receive the most accurate information regarding permafrost extent and thickness, it appears ideal to conduct ERT surveys annually, within the same month as the previous year’s survey.

The C54 TiSi2 thin films are widely applied in semiconductor devices due to the low electric resistance and high thermal stability. Through the annealing processing in this study, the metastable C49 TiSi2 with an electric resistivity of 219.3 £g£[-cm transforms to the stable C54 TiSi2 phase at a higher annealing temperature, with a resistivity of 30.5 £g£[-cm. Hence the transformation temperature of C49 ¡÷ C54 is of great concern in metallization of gates and local interconnections. In this thesis, it is found that the oxygen content and Ag addition impose significant influence on the transformation temperature of C49 ¡÷ C54. The as-sputtered TiSi2 thin films are confirmed to be amorphous. After annealing at 600oC or 900oC, the silicides would transform to the metastable C49 TiSi2 or C54 TiSi2 phase, respectively. The current transformation temperatures are much higher than 200oC and 600oC for the normal TiSi2 system, due to high oxygen content in the current films (up to 15-20 at% as a result of our old sputtering system). Nevertheless, the co-sputtered TiSi2 thin films with 5 and 20 at% Ag can decrease the formation temperature of C54 TiSi2 phase to 800oC. Compare with the as-sputtered TiSi2 thin films, the desirable electric resistivity of the C54 phase in the 20 at% Ag thin films is also further reduced to 22.9 £g£[-cm. The time-dependent mechanical responses of the amorphous, crystalline C49, and C54 TiSi2 thin films are investigated by room-temperature nanoindentation at the different loading rates ranging from 0.0125 to 5 mN/s. The anelasticity response plays an important role in the current TiSi2 thin films and is found to be sensitive to the loading rate. The displacement of time-dependent anelasticity recorded during the period of hold time increases with increasing loading rate. The anelasticity behavior can be analyzed by the Kelvin model. The as-deposited amorphous phase, with a lower atomic packing density and higher degree of defects and free volumes, exhibits the higher anelasticity deformation and longer relaxation time.

The theme of this thesis is MBE growth of high resistivity semiconductor epi-layers and MBD growth of silicon oxide anti-reflection films. For MBE growth of high resistivity semiconductor epi-layers, In0.523Al0.477As and In0.527Al0.228Ga0.245As lattice matched to InP and grown by MBE at 400¢J has been investigated. We construct n-i-n and p-i-n structure diode models to evidence that the nonlinear I-V characteristics are an intrinsic property of 400¢J In0.523Al0.477As and In0.527Al0.228Ga0.245As, and not due to barriers to current injection at the n+ InGaAs/ high resistivity epi-layer and high resistivity epi-layer/n+ InP heterojunctions. We obtained the effective resistivities of 400¢J In0.523Al0.477As and In0.527Al0.228Ga0.245As at 7V are still more than 109 £[ cm and 107 £[ cm, respectively, in n-i-n structure. They are more than sufficient for most practical applications. For MBD growth of silicon oxide anti-reflection films, we have set up the SiO MBD system in our lab. Then we measured the index of the SiO film that we deposited in the wavelength of 1550nm is about 1.85. Finally, we coated SiO anti-reflection film on one cleaved facet of a Fabry-Perot laser. The reflectance R of the coated facet is reduced to about 1.7¡Ñ10-4 in the vicinity of £f¡×1580 nm.

The production of highly aerated foods remains a challenge that requires skill to obtain desired appearance and texture. Since foams are fragile and inherently unstable, evaluation of structure changes with time requires a delicate approach. Non-invasive but informative evaluation of changes in aerated food properties is a desired goal to be achieved in this thesis. I studied the aging of egg white foams of different void fraction using two noninvasive techniques - ultrasonic spectroscopy and electrical resistivity - with a view to understanding aging mechanisms that would affect the quality of the final product. To help in interpretation of the results, a commercial high void fraction foam, Gillette (Sensitive), was also analyzed. As a support technique for ultrasound results I used image analysis in order quantitatively evaluate the size of bubbles in the foams. Large increases in attenuation were observed with increasing aging time and frequency. Results were modeled using an effective medium theory originated by Foldy (1945) in order to understand the factors governing foam lifetime and texture. From electrical resistance measurements, liquid fraction changes in an egg white foam column were evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively by using a generalized free drainage model. Although egg-white foams were more prone to changes due to drainage, I observed that for all foams the ultrasonic scaling parameter alfa*lambda/freq was proportional to the square of average bubble size (indicative of a diffusively driven aging process due to disproportionation of bubbles). Slopes of alfa*lambda/freq versus aging time were 6*10-8 and 11*10-8 for egg white foams of void fraction 0.65 and 0.78, respectively, indicating that disproportionation progressed approximately twice as fast in the high void fraction foam. The slopes of alfa*lambda/freq versus aging time were similar for both Gillette foam void fractions (0.93 and 0.91) at a value of 1.5*10–8 s-1, attributable to a lower solubility of isobutane compared to air. By combining ultrasound and electrical resistivity, this thesis has provided novel insights into understanding instability processes occurring in foams. Potentially, ultrasound techniques could be used instead of imaging for foam aging studies, since non-invasive and non-destructive measurements of attenuation and phase velocity permit interrogation of opaque foam structures.

The production of highly aerated foods remains a challenge that requires skill to obtain desired appearance and texture. Since foams are fragile and inherently unstable, evaluation of structure changes with time requires a delicate approach. Non-invasive but informative evaluation of changes in aerated food properties is a desired goal to be achieved in this thesis. I studied the aging of egg white foams of different void fraction using two noninvasive techniques - ultrasonic spectroscopy and electrical resistivity - with a view to understanding aging mechanisms that would affect the quality of the final product. To help in interpretation of the results, a commercial high void fraction foam, Gillette (Sensitive), was also analyzed. As a support technique for ultrasound results I used image analysis in order quantitatively evaluate the size of bubbles in the foams. Large increases in attenuation were observed with increasing aging time and frequency. Results were modeled using an effective medium theory originated by Foldy (1945) in order to understand the factors governing foam lifetime and texture. From electrical resistance measurements, liquid fraction changes in an egg white foam column were evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively by using a generalized free drainage model. Although egg-white foams were more prone to changes due to drainage, I observed that for all foams the ultrasonic scaling parameter alfa*lambda/freq was proportional to the square of average bubble size (indicative of a diffusively driven aging process due to disproportionation of bubbles). Slopes of alfa*lambda/freq versus aging time were 6*10-8 and 11*10-8 for egg white foams of void fraction 0.65 and 0.78, respectively, indicating that disproportionation progressed approximately twice as fast in the high void fraction foam. The slopes of alfa*lambda/freq versus aging time were similar for both Gillette foam void fractions (0.93 and 0.91) at a value of 1.5*10–8 s-1, attributable to a lower solubility of isobutane compared to air. By combining ultrasound and electrical resistivity, this thesis has provided novel insights into understanding instability processes occurring in foams. Potentially, ultrasound techniques could be used instead of imaging for foam aging studies, since non-invasive and non-destructive measurements of attenuation and phase velocity permit interrogation of opaque foam structures.

Through the application of downhole logging techniques an innovative assessment of density dependent groundwater flow has been undertaken that highlights the limitations of water level measurements for assessing groundwater flow in coastal environments. The method utilises an EM39 bulk conductivity log to calculate fluid conductivity/fluid density that was then used to convert measured point water head to freshwater head/environmental head to improve the understanding of groundwater flow at the creek. This method of assessing density dependent flow is unique and has not previously been demonstrated. The converted water levels showed that interpretation of groundwater flow is critically dependent on a detailed knowledge of both head and density. An assessment of the potential error in the conversion process indicated that, for the low gradients at the study site, misinterpretation of flow could occur due to errors inherent in the process. As a result, it is recommended that pressure transducers and loggers be used to monitor pressure in variable density systems so that Darcy???s equation can be used directly to calculate groundwater flow and direction. The thesis also presents the results of high-resolution geophysical mapping of the distribution of saline groundwater beneath a tidal creek. The mapping was used to develop a detailed conceptual model of the salinity distribution at a tidal creek that included: the presence of saline intrusion beneath the creek; saline groundwater overlying fresh groundwater due to surface flooding in extreme tide events; concentrated discharge of groundwater (comprised of brackish water due to mixing in the aquifer) at the creek banks; and, significant changes in the distribution of saline groundwater according to rainfall events and only minor changes over a tidal cycle. The conceptual model, geophysical site assessment, water level analysis and numerical modelling represents a multi-disciplinary approach to the assessment of the interaction of saline and fresh groundwater that has not previously been undertaken. Significant anisotropy was inferred from geophysical observations that indicated vertical flow in the borehole annulus. This observation is particularly significant and implies that even relatively short (1.0 to 2.0 m) screened wells may not yield accurate fluid conductivity and head values in variable density systems.

Este estudo apresenta a comparação e discussão entre registros de perfilagem geofísica obtidos por três sondas elétricas que medem resistividades de litologias. Uma análise detalhada foi feita para detectar qual destas sondas utilizadas proporciona a melhor opção em termos de identificação das camadas de carvão e resolução vertical. As sondas elétricas utilizadas foram: guard log (GLOG), single point resistance (SPR) e induction log (IND). Para auxiliar na comparação entre esses diferentes perfis, outros dois registros geofísicos importantes foram incluídos: radiação gama natural (GN) e optical televiewer (OPTV), os quais ajudaram a identificar os estratos de carvão. No caso específico do OPTV, quando a situação é favorável, ele permite identificar os estratos de carvão e verificar a resolução vertical dos demais registros, em função da excelente resolução vertical. As imagens produzidas pelo OPTV podem, nas circunstâncias adequadas, servir como testemunho digital, para complementar ou mesmo substituir as amostras de sondagem com recuperação de testemunhos. Neste estudo, foram analisados dados obtidos em 4 depósitos de carvão diferentes: Área B3, Calombo, Cerro e Seival. Todos os depósitos de carvão acima citados situam-se no estado do Rio Grande do Sul (RS) - Brasil. Ao todo, 15 furos foram apresentados e discutidos. Destes, 13 são furos de sondagem com recuperação de testemunhos, enquanto que os dois restantes são furos de desmonte. As descrições geológicas dos 13 furos de sondagens são as informações principais utilizadas como parâmetro de controle nas comparações entre os perfis geofísicos, enquanto que as imagens OPTV serviram como uma alternativa para verificar a resolução vertical dos perfis elétricos. Ao final das análises, verificou-se que o dispositivo guard-log (GLOG) tende a ter o melhor desempenho no aspecto de identificação litológica, demonstrando uma capacidade superior em relação aos demais arranjos em termos de resolução vertical. Estatisticamente, ele apresentou as estimativas de espessuras mais próximas em valor, em relação às espessuras proporcionadas pelas descrições geológicas de testemunhos de sondagem. / This study presents a comparison and discussion between the geophysical logs obtained by three electrical probes that measure resistivity of lithologies. A detailed analysis was carried out to detect which of these probes, provides the best option in terms of identification of coal seams and vertical resolution. The electrical probes used were guard log (GLOG), single point resistance (SPR) and induction log (IND). To aid the comparison between the different logs, two other important geophysical logs were included: natural gamma radiation (GN) and optical televiewer (OPTV), which helped to identify the coal seams. In the specific case of OPTV, when the situation is favorable, it identifies the coal seams and check the vertical resolution of the other logs, in function of its excellent vertical resolution. The images produced by OPTV can serve, in appropriate circumstances, as digital core sample to complement or even replace the diamond drill core samples recovery. In this study, analyzed data were obtained from four different coal deposits, which are: B3 Area, Calombo, Cerro and Seival. All the coal deposits mentioned above are located in the state of Rio Grande do Sul (RS) - Brazil. In all, 15 boreholes were presented and discussed. Out of these, 13 are boreholes with recovered core samples, while the remaining two are blastholes. The geological descriptions of the 13 boreholes are the main information used as a control parameter in comparisons against the geophysical logs, while OPTV images served as an alternative to verify the vertical resolution of the electric logs. At the end of the analysis, it was found that the guard-log probe (GLOG) tends to have better performance in the aspect of lithological identification, demonstrating a greater capacity in comparison with the other in terms of vertical resolution. Statistically, it presented the closest estimated value in relation to the coal seams thickness provided by geological description of the recovered core samples.

Este estudo apresenta a comparação e discussão entre registros de perfilagem geofísica obtidos por três sondas elétricas que medem resistividades de litologias. Uma análise detalhada foi feita para detectar qual destas sondas utilizadas proporciona a melhor opção em termos de identificação das camadas de carvão e resolução vertical. As sondas elétricas utilizadas foram: guard log (GLOG), single point resistance (SPR) e induction log (IND). Para auxiliar na comparação entre esses diferentes perfis, outros dois registros geofísicos importantes foram incluídos: radiação gama natural (GN) e optical televiewer (OPTV), os quais ajudaram a identificar os estratos de carvão. No caso específico do OPTV, quando a situação é favorável, ele permite identificar os estratos de carvão e verificar a resolução vertical dos demais registros, em função da excelente resolução vertical. As imagens produzidas pelo OPTV podem, nas circunstâncias adequadas, servir como testemunho digital, para complementar ou mesmo substituir as amostras de sondagem com recuperação de testemunhos. Neste estudo, foram analisados dados obtidos em 4 depósitos de carvão diferentes: Área B3, Calombo, Cerro e Seival. Todos os depósitos de carvão acima citados situam-se no estado do Rio Grande do Sul (RS) - Brasil. Ao todo, 15 furos foram apresentados e discutidos. Destes, 13 são furos de sondagem com recuperação de testemunhos, enquanto que os dois restantes são furos de desmonte. As descrições geológicas dos 13 furos de sondagens são as informações principais utilizadas como parâmetro de controle nas comparações entre os perfis geofísicos, enquanto que as imagens OPTV serviram como uma alternativa para verificar a resolução vertical dos perfis elétricos. Ao final das análises, verificou-se que o dispositivo guard-log (GLOG) tende a ter o melhor desempenho no aspecto de identificação litológica, demonstrando uma capacidade superior em relação aos demais arranjos em termos de resolução vertical. Estatisticamente, ele apresentou as estimativas de espessuras mais próximas em valor, em relação às espessuras proporcionadas pelas descrições geológicas de testemunhos de sondagem. / This study presents a comparison and discussion between the geophysical logs obtained by three electrical probes that measure resistivity of lithologies. A detailed analysis was carried out to detect which of these probes, provides the best option in terms of identification of coal seams and vertical resolution. The electrical probes used were guard log (GLOG), single point resistance (SPR) and induction log (IND). To aid the comparison between the different logs, two other important geophysical logs were included: natural gamma radiation (GN) and optical televiewer (OPTV), which helped to identify the coal seams. In the specific case of OPTV, when the situation is favorable, it identifies the coal seams and check the vertical resolution of the other logs, in function of its excellent vertical resolution. The images produced by OPTV can serve, in appropriate circumstances, as digital core sample to complement or even replace the diamond drill core samples recovery. In this study, analyzed data were obtained from four different coal deposits, which are: B3 Area, Calombo, Cerro and Seival. All the coal deposits mentioned above are located in the state of Rio Grande do Sul (RS) - Brazil. In all, 15 boreholes were presented and discussed. Out of these, 13 are boreholes with recovered core samples, while the remaining two are blastholes. The geological descriptions of the 13 boreholes are the main information used as a control parameter in comparisons against the geophysical logs, while OPTV images served as an alternative to verify the vertical resolution of the electric logs. At the end of the analysis, it was found that the guard-log probe (GLOG) tends to have better performance in the aspect of lithological identification, demonstrating a greater capacity in comparison with the other in terms of vertical resolution. Statistically, it presented the closest estimated value in relation to the coal seams thickness provided by geological description of the recovered core samples.

Le développement des structures en bois en Génie Civil demande aujourd’hui de proposer aux gestionnaires d’ouvrages des outils de diagnostic et de monitoring pour suivre l’évolution des pathologies (flèches excessives, fissures, attaques biologiques, etc.) mais également pour contrôler l’humidité interne dans les éléments. Dans ce dernier contexte, le travail développé dans cette thèse concerne le développement d’un outil de caractérisation du champ hydrique dans des sections transversales d’éléments structuraux en bois. La méthode étudiée couple une mesure de résistivité, composée d’une tête de mesure (résistivimètre) associée à un grand nombre de sondes raccordées à un système multiplexé, et d’une méthode inverse implémentée dans un code aux éléments finis. Dans une première partie, il est étudié les techniques de caractérisation des propriétés de diffusion dans le matériau caractérisé par une orthotropie et un comportement non linéaire exploitant des mesures d’humidité moyenne (méthode gravitométrique) et des profils spatiaux par mesures gammadensimétriques. Il est montré que le couplage des deux mesures permet d’obtenir en finalité des propriétés intrinsèques rendant ainsi la méthode de caractérisation fiable et robuste. La seconde partie présente le développement d’un ensemble expérimental dans le but d’obtenir une cartographie 1D et 2D du champ hydrique dans une section transversale. La technique repose sur la généralisation des méthodes résistives multiplexées utilisées en géophysique dans l’étude des sols stratifiés à des géométries finies à 2 dimensions. L’algorithme employé est basé sur le couplage de mesures de résistivité multiplexées et d’une analyse inverse implémentée dans un code aux éléments finis. La solution 1D permet d’obtenir des profils spatiaux pouvant remplacer les mesures gammadensimétriques. Les profils 2D permettent, pour une section donnée, d’estimer le champ d’humidité interne en tout point et de proposer ainsi un suivi dans le temps des profils hydriques. / In civil engineering constructions, the development of timber structures requires today to managers works some diagnostic tools and monitoring systems to monitor pathologies (excessive deflections, cracks, biological attack, etc.) but also to control moisture content in the element sections. In the last context, the proposed work in this PhD thesis is the development of a tool for characterization of the moisture content map in the cross sections of structural elements. Studied method is based on the resistivity measuring, comprising a measuring head (resistivity meter) associated with many connected probes in a multiplexed system, and an inverse method implemented in a finite element software. In the first part, it is studied the techniques of characterization of diffusion properties in wood samples characterized by orthotropic and nonlinear behaviors according to average moisture content measurements (gravimetric method) and spatial profiles gamma densitometer measures. It is shown that the coupling of the two measurements provides the intrinsic properties with more reliability and more robustness. The second part deals with the development of an experimental protocol in order to achieve 1D and 2D mapping of the moisture content field in a cross section. The technique is based on the generalization of multiplexed resistivity geophysical methods used in the study of stratified soils with 2-dimensional geometries. The algorithm is based on the coupling between the resistivity measurements and an inverse multiplexed analysis implemented in a finite element code. The 1D solution provides spatial profiles which can replace gamma densitometer measures. For a selected section, 2D profiles allow estimating the moisture content field at any point and thus provide a time tracking of moisture profiles