This study examines the spatial characteristics of specialized (high order) retail trade within Vancouver, B.C. Conclusions arrived at are presumed applicable to most contemporary North American cities of a similar size range. Literature is examined in order to sift out existing generalizations concerning this class of retailing activities. The most persistent notions in the literature suggest: (i) that specialized (high order) retail businesses depend upon the infrequent purchases of a large threshold population for support, i.e. on an intra-city scale such businesses are oriented to a city-wide market for potential or eventual customers and their market hinterlands are thus presumed to be city-wide, embracing nests of lower order hinterlands; (ii) as a result, specialized, (high order) businesses are seen to be located centrally within the city since this is seen to be the point maximally accessible from across the entire city, and thus the optimum location for businesses depending on customers presumed scattered across the whole city. These ideas are basic to analysis of intra-city retail spatial organization in terms of distance minimizing theories, such as ecological theory and central place theory. However, close examination of the operating characteristics of specialized retail businesses questions these accepted concepts and their theoretical underpinnings. Especially it is stressed: (i) that specialized (high order) retailing tends towards monopolistic competition, since merchants attempt to attract customers through "product differentiation!' and "image projection". It is argued that this permits locational flexibility, not central fixation for specialized (high order) retail businesses: (ii) the normal background for retail activity in North America is a pluralistic socio-economic environment. Consequently, retail stores - especially specialized (high order) stores - are likely to appeal to socially distinctive and areally localized groups for custom. It is argued that this results in selective and morphologically sectoral (not indiscriminantly city-wide) market hinterlands for specialized (high order) stores. Recognition of these characteristics, and the subsequent welding of traditional geographical theories (ecological and central place theories) with insights from economic theory and sociological theory, enriches traditional geographical ideas in a context where existing ideas had hitherto been obscure or misleading. The same recognition also emphasizes that such traditional theories best explain the geography of low order retailing rather than high order retailing. The argument developed permits certain deductions about the locational and hinterland characteristics of specialized (high order) retail businesses to be made, which are phrased as hypotheses for test. Hypotheses are tested in Vancouver in terms of a number or stores identified as "high order". Hypotheses concerning the locational attributes of such stores are tested by interviews with store merchants and managers, to establish reasons for the choice of particular store locations and to discuss methods of business operation. Hypotheses concerning the hinterland characteristics of such stores are tested by the analysis of store hinterlands using credit record, sales slip and questionnaire derived data. This programme of interview and hinterland analysis yields a large number of case studies which are analysed in terms of hypotheses outlined. Many of these case studies are reported, with examples being chosen to cover all possible ramifications of the argument and a "spectrum" of "orders of good" being discussed in order to demonstrate changes in the geography of retail activities with changes in the "order of good" variable. Reporting of these case studies makes up the bulk of the study, and the evidence reported tends to confirm the hypotheses suggested and the arguments on which they rest. On the basis of the merchant interview programme, it is suggested that analysis of the cultural background and behavioural motives of merchants usefully illuminates patterns of location of high order retail businesses, now shown to be disparate, not centrally fixed. A verbal model is presented which systematizes the process of intracity retail site selection by business men, and which emphasizes this behavioural approach, to analysis of store location. Further implications of the argument concerning the internal structure of the city - especially in terms of the role of the C.B.D. in the contemporary city - are drawn out and made explicit as the study proceeds. One of these suggests that the C.B.D. may have lost its accessibility monopoly in the modern city, that centrality may have lost its value to certain traditionally core located activities, and that the historic market place in the centre of the city may have been replaced by a territorially larger area of the city (the "inner city market area") which now shares the accessibility advantages once enjoyed only by the C.B.D. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

Shopping centres have dominated retailing in North America since the 1950's. But today, many shopping centres are facing serious problems. The future, which once looked unlimited and bright, now seems problematic. It is this transformation on which this thesis will focus. This thesis examines the historical trends behind the regional shopping centre industry. It also deals with the significance of regional shopping centres in the larger body of academic work. Regional shopping centres can be seen as products of modern society's mass production and consumption system. Their design and geographic allocation in the urban landscape is a product of both architects' and urban planners' efforts to control and regulate the modern landscape. Being a product of modernism, regional shopping centres must now meet the challenge of surviving in the post-modern era. This thesis continues with examining the development of the regional shopping centre industry in Canada. The first part of this development (1960-1980) was characterized by growth then stability. However, in the 1990's, significant numbers of centres have experienced considerable turbulence. The number of tenants, the concentration and combination of different retail businesses, as well as the annual vacancy rate are all parameters used to illustrate this. The external and internal conditions that are affecting these contemporary changes are also described, along with the strategies that are being used by the owners of regional shopping centres to meet the changes. For example, the movement away from having only goods tenants, to centres with tenants that also provide services, such as health care and libraries. The downgrading of centres to community-oriented centres, and the increase of non-retail activities are other strategies currently being used to adapt to the new conditions. This thesis includes case studies of six different regional shopping centres in the Greater Vancouver Regional District. The six centres provide the study with valuable information about the industry's history and current condition in the general retail sector. Information was collected through shopping centre surveys, together with various retail studies and trade articles from magazines, newspapers and periodicals. The study was enhanced with interviews of private sector mall managers, owners and developers, as well as the retailers in and architects of various shopping centres. The study shows that the regional shopping centre industry, to a large extent, continues to use the same development and management strategies as in the past (1960's and 1970's). The use of a universal strategy has tended to produce similar results in a centre's tenant mix, geographical location and architectural design. The result is that regional shopping centres today suffer from being undifferentiated and too similar with other competitive regional shopping centres. They also struggle with the same problems in terms of new retail competition and changing consumer demand. Regional shopping centres are facing a variety of new challenges, including new retailing concepts, cross-border shopping and declining consumer spending. There are several strategies that are being used to deal with these changes. The main goal for regional shopping centres is to find a strategy that distinguishes each from the homogenous image that prevails today. The future of the regional shopping centre industry depends on its ability to adapt to changing consumer spending patterns in a number of ways. First, there is likely to be a return of regional shopping centres which cater to the local community. This will be achieved by changing the centre's tenant mix. The level and quality of service will also be adjusted to meet specific community requirements. Secondly, regional shopping centres will incorporate more non-retail facilities. Non-competitive tenants are being acquired to fill in space and give the centres a more diverse character. Finally, regional shopping centres will include leisure and recreational activities, including amusement and entertainment facilities. Ultimately, only those centres that are able to find a specific market niche will survive in the long term. This is in sharp contrast to the old practice of being everything for everyone.

Shopping centres have dominated retailing in North America since the 1950's. But today, many shopping centres are facing serious problems. The future, which once looked unlimited and bright, now seems problematic. It is this transformation on which this thesis will focus. This thesis examines the historical trends behind the regional shopping centre industry. It also deals with the significance of regional shopping centres in the larger body of academic work. Regional shopping centres can be seen as products of modern society's mass production and consumption system. Their design and geographic allocation in the urban landscape is a product of both architects' and urban planners' efforts to control and regulate the modern landscape. Being a product of modernism, regional shopping centres must now meet the challenge of surviving in the post-modern era. This thesis continues with examining the development of the regional shopping centre industry in Canada. The first part of this development (1960-1980) was characterized by growth then stability. However, in the 1990's, significant numbers of centres have experienced considerable turbulence. The number of tenants, the concentration and combination of different retail businesses, as well as the annual vacancy rate are all parameters used to illustrate this. The external and internal conditions that are affecting these contemporary changes are also described, along with the strategies that are being used by the owners of regional shopping centres to meet the changes. For example, the movement away from having only goods tenants, to centres with tenants that also provide services, such as health care and libraries. The downgrading of centres to community-oriented centres, and the increase of non-retail activities are other strategies currently being used to adapt to the new conditions. This thesis includes case studies of six different regional shopping centres in the Greater Vancouver Regional District. The six centres provide the study with valuable information about the industry's history and current condition in the general retail sector. Information was collected through shopping centre surveys, together with various retail studies and trade articles from magazines, newspapers and periodicals. The study was enhanced with interviews of private sector mall managers, owners and developers, as well as the retailers in and architects of various shopping centres. The study shows that the regional shopping centre industry, to a large extent, continues to use the same development and management strategies as in the past (1960's and 1970's). The use of a universal strategy has tended to produce similar results in a centre's tenant mix, geographical location and architectural design. The result is that regional shopping centres today suffer from being undifferentiated and too similar with other competitive regional shopping centres. They also struggle with the same problems in terms of new retail competition and changing consumer demand. Regional shopping centres are facing a variety of new challenges, including new retailing concepts, cross-border shopping and declining consumer spending. There are several strategies that are being used to deal with these changes. The main goal for regional shopping centres is to find a strategy that distinguishes each from the homogenous image that prevails today. The future of the regional shopping centre industry depends on its ability to adapt to changing consumer spending patterns in a number of ways. First, there is likely to be a return of regional shopping centres which cater to the local community. This will be achieved by changing the centre's tenant mix. The level and quality of service will also be adjusted to meet specific community requirements. Secondly, regional shopping centres will incorporate more non-retail facilities. Non-competitive tenants are being acquired to fill in space and give the centres a more diverse character. Finally, regional shopping centres will include leisure and recreational activities, including amusement and entertainment facilities. Ultimately, only those centres that are able to find a specific market niche will survive in the long term. This is in sharp contrast to the old practice of being everything for everyone. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

Within the academic literature pertaining to retail location analysis, the prominent focus over the last years has been on mathematical models capable of directly delineating the trade area of a retail facility and estimating the outlet's potential sales volume. This concentration on modeling represents an attempt to add some structure to the site selection process and to eliminate some of the problems associated with the highly subjective and intuitive alternative methods (such as Applebaum's analog approach), which tend to rely extremely heavily on past learning experiences and the analyst's decision making ability. However, even though these modeling approaches add some needed structure and objectiveness to the process, they have failed to reach any level of acceptance in the business world. One of the major purposes of this study is to determine the underlying reasons for this lack of adoption. To gain an understanding of the problem a number of planners, developers, consultants and store merchants were interviewed in order to ascertain the methods and processes involved. Aside from basic methodologies, the questionnaire also concentrated on a wide variety of locational considerations not normally dealt with in the academic literature, such as corporate strategies. This survey revealed a number of problems inherent in the application of these highly structured mathematical models. Most of the problems stemmed from the limited perspective taken. For example, only the demand for retail facilities are considered in the models, all supply considerations are neglected. Corporate strategies, past learning experiences and most financial implications are ignored. Furthermore, these approaches tend to exclude a number of important factors that are suspected to have a significant impact on determining consumer patronage patterns. Some of the more important variables identified were: tenant mix, the location of the tenants within the shopping center, accessibility, an array of site quality factors, and population characteristics. Although there is a need for some structure to be added to those methods used in practice, it is apparent the models are too inflexible and limited for the type of situation for which they are intended. The dynamic nature of the developmental process requires more fluidity in the analytical approaches used, since each situation presents such a unique set of circumstances. Unless the entire design of the models are changed in a dramatic way, they are never likely to be used in the business world. This, however, is not liable to happen in the immediate future since the direction that most of the academic research seems to be taking is towards making minor adaptations to model forms that are impractical by their general design and nature. Therefore, until research takes on a new direction, it is not likely that any practical advances will be made. In essence, the need for some new directions in academic research, the urgency for a closer association between the theorists and those in business, and the necessity for more holistic approaches are among the more important inferences made within this thesis. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate