The rapidly increasing worldwide usage of the Internet and the World Wide Web since the second half of the 1990s has affected the way geographers, built environment scholars and commentators look at concepts like space, distance, and the city itself. The possibility for real-world functions such as gathering, informing, communicating, taking decisions and performing economic transactions to be hosted by a new type of electronic, virtual space, has opened up new opportunities together with many new questions for those who are involved in planning urban spaces. One of the most interesting phenomena related to the emergence of 'urban' Internet functions is the creation - started around 1993-94 - of local public information systems called 'digital cities'. These systems were hailed as highly valuable 'cyber' additions to urban space and to the public sphere of Western cities. This thesis has constituted one of the first, systematic attempts to observe and analyse the 'digital city' phenomenon within the boundaries of the European Union. It has contributed to the creation of a much-needed typology of digital cities by surveying and analysing the contents of over two hundred early developments across Europe. Another important contribution has been going beyond the observation of the contents of the initiatives and, through in-depth case studies, analysing how a couple of advanced and exemplar experiments were being socially shaped, concentrating on the important - and often overlooked - processes behind the design and deployment of technology. Information and Communication Technologies are in constant - and rapid - evolution, and so are IT-based systems used to run several aspects of urban life. However, as the early phaseso f the developmenta nd acceptanceo f new technologiesa re crucial and able to influence later ideas and initiatives, the results and recommendations from this thesis can be seen as a valuable contribution to the study of urban technology in general.

Urban Development Corporations (UDCs) are perhaps the most outstanding examples of government action in the field of urban regeneration in the last twenty years. In order to promote regeneration UDCs were given development control powers over Urban Development Areas (UDAs). These powers were taken from local government and this caused well-documented resentment in many cases. However, local government retained all development plan-making powers. Following two town planning acts (in 1990 and 1991) central government gave the development plan more power in the development control process (through Section 54A). This created a situation in an UDA where, in relation to development control, the UDC had to have regard to a development plan that had been written by a local authority; often a local authority with which it had not seen eye to eye in planning matters. Thus there was a potential for conflict between an UDC and a local authority in both strategic and specific planning issues. There was possible tension between regulation (the development plan) and regeneration (the strategy and aims of the UDC). Most local authorities in urban areas were replacing old style development plans with new Unitary Development Plans which further complicated the issue. It became vitally important for UDCs to have an input to these emerging plans that the local authorities were preparing, in order to ensure that their aims and objectives for the UDAs would not be hindered by the new UDPs, which were to play a greater role in the development control process. This research firstly examines the concept of both the development plan and urban regeneration. It then presents the important links between the two in relation to the experience of UDCs. A series of questions are generated through the literature review which are answered in the final part of the work. Using these theoretical and practical standpoints as a basis, a conceptual framework for the study of the UDP preparation process, content and relationship between the local authorities and the UDCs with regard to the emerging plans is produced. It is formulated through theoretical study of literature concerning policy analysis and organisational relationships. In order to examine what occurred in the real world, this framework is then applied two case study areas - Tyne / Wear and London Docklands. Each area had a designated UDC over parts of composite unitary local authorities. The respective UDAs spread across a total of seven local authorities. The conceptual framework for this study was applied to the situation between the UDC and each of the seven local authorities in order to examine differences in working practices, differences in policy process and content, and differences in the relationships between the two organisations. UDCs were finally wound up in April 1998, and in the current climate it is unlikely that urban regeneration will ever be promoted in such a way again. However there are many important lessons to be learnt from the experience of UDCs and the development planning system. These are particularly pertinent to existing urban regeneration authorities such as English Partnerships and also to any possible citywide or regional development agencies. This study presents the range of practices that were evident in the case studies and examines what structured them. It concludes by outlining the most appropriate and relevant methods that were employed and making suggestions for better working practices in the future.

With the industrial revolution and huge emigration from villages to cities in developed countries, and later on with the changing balance between the Urban and Rural residents in third world countries, because of the poverty and lack of basic services in rural areas, rural development has become a major problem in the world, especially in third world countries. Iran, as one of such countries, has been faced with this problem, and some reforms for changing the situation and providing more acceptable living conditions for the rural people have been established and implemented. After the Revolution in 1979, the Islamic Government has its roots in the poor people who supported the Revolution in different stages so the effective factors for such improvements in rural condition are included in the revolutionary Constitution and later on in the National Development Programmes. The statements in the Constitution Law and the establishment of two independent agencies, Bonyad-e-Maskan & Jahad-e-Sazandegi, to deal with rural problems, have resulted in the start of Rural Development Planning activities. The national aims developed by the policymaker for development in rural areas in this regard are to: "Create necessary social, cultural and economic conditions necessary for development, and providing necessary possibilities and physical improvements and necessary facilities for improving housing and other environmental basic public services." With this overall policy, development activity has started with the aim of improvement in the standard of life for rural areas. Up to 1997, about 1000 plans have been prepared and 370 have been implemented. This research is looking to investigate the implemented cases, to evaluate the degree of success or failure and to make conclusions and recommendations. With this aim, the research includes a literature review, in the context of development planning, specifically Rural Development Planning, and then an investigation of Iranian Constitutional Law, the National Programmes, the agencies and Iranian planning organisation to be able to make an evaluation framework and design a process for case studies and data collection, in a qualitative approach to the research. With 59 cases which had passed their first five years period of planning, 13 cases have been chosen, of which five have been studied in detail, each with an individual field study report, leading to specific and general conclusions, which are divided into two parts. Firstly from the literature review, which draws the main points to establish the desired achievements for successful development planning in rural areas. Secondly the conclusions apply to all parts of the rural development process in Iran, from policy making to implementation and with recommendations for the overall process in principle and in detail and relating to the agencies and resources involved. The main results from the case studies have identified gaps and weaknesses in the process and therefore have lead to recommendations as to how the process would be more successful. It shows that the rural development planning, as part of the national development programme, needs: i) To have more accurate regional plans in advance in order to define the main potentials in each region, and to provide guidelines appropriate to each, ii) To ensure the correct designation of the villages which are to be planned; iii) To encourage the appointed consultants to follow best practice for plan-preparation; iv) To provide the necessary administrative organisation, with the powers and resources to be able to carry out the process; and v) To improve implementation.

The starting point of this study was the influence of the rapid urban growth that Saudi Arabia has experienced during the last three decades, which has had a negative effect on the environment in general and in particular has led to the loss of the natural resources of the agricultural land of the oasis areas. The study seeks to answer the following questions: How can we sustain development in the oasis ? Are there comprehensive policies in respect of urban development, including infrastructure, agriculture and water, and environmental protection? And what is the impact of these policies on the general environment and on the oases in particular? The research covers a wide range of policies and the National Development Plans, which cover different areas of development such as urban development, infrastructure, agriculture and water, and environment, as well as other government activities within the authority of several agencies and ministries. AI-Qatif oasisi n the EasternP rovinceh asb eens electeda s a cases tudy to illustrate the existing situation and the result of implementing the national policies in terms of physicald evelopmenat nde nvironmentapl rotection,a nd to highlight the factors which haver esultedi n unsustainabled evelopmenitn the Kingdom's oases. The different experiences of other countries in relation to such concerns and the various policies of the Saudi government, such as urban, infrastructure, agriculture and water, and environment policies, are assessed and reviewed in general terms as well as more particularly in relation to the physical development and environmental protection of AI-Qatif oasis. Accounts are given of MEPA and MOMRA as the responsible bodies within the Kingdom for development and environmental protection, and general details of their institutional responsibilities and policies are provided in order to aid the analysis of the research. The researcher adopted a methodology combining both qualitative and quantitative elements, a descriptive approach, a survey type of research design, and an interview data collection technique, in order to gather information for his study. An assessment of the data gathered in relation to the research has helped to illustrate the factors contributing to the existing unsustainable development in AI-Qatif oasis and the loss of the agricultural land of the oasis as a valuable natural resource. The findings show that Saudi Arabia has produced appropriate policies and has established the ministries and agencies to carry out these policies; as a result the people enjoy one of the best standards of living in the world. However, there are still in evidence some factors which cause concern in relation to environmental matters. These include the lack at national level of comprehensive sustainable development policies for the oases, such as would be aided by the utilisation of EA and SEA, the lack at local level of wide-ranging implementation of the existing national policies in relation to the physical development and environmental protection of the natural resources of the oasis, and the lack of a comprehensive institutional framework to implement the policies which exist. Other very important factors are the absence of comprehensive co-operation between government ministries and agencies in relation to the sustainable development of the oases, and the lack of public awareness of, participation in, and education about environment matters, all of which contribute to the existing unsustainable development in the oasis. Finally, the study makes recommendations that would help and guide growth and change in the oases along the way of sustainable development.

Education is an important factor in the development and growth of a country. It is essential to have school transport to facilitate the transport of male and female students to school so that the families will be persuaded to send their children to schools, and the children are encouraged to continue education. The school transport modes are of different kinds: students can walk to the schools; families may own private cars; transport may be rented or may be provided by the government, such as school buses. The focus of this research is to identify the modes which are used to transport the students to and from schools, problems associated with such modes of transport, and the modes preferred by the Saudi households. The research also concentrates on identifying the constraints preventing the selection of preferred modes, and investigates the relation between the sociocultural factors and the selection of the modes in order to develop a Modal Split Model. A review of previous studies reveals that comfortability, convenience, time, safety, and costs, are the factors that play important roles in the selection of the transport modes. In the light of these factors, the school transport modes in the city of Dammam, Saudi Arabia are evaluated. Data were collected from a sample of 1081 male and 1084 female students, as well as from their guardians. An analysis of the data shows that students use the following modes for school transport at varying rates depending on the educational level: Walking, Private Car, Carpool, Limousine/Taxi, Government School Bus, and Public Bus, while the preferred modes are: Walking, Private Car, Government School Bus, and Rented (Public) Bus. Eleven modal split models for school trips have been chosen from 161 models as the best models for predicting school trips in terms of rho-squared (P 2)" As a result of the descriptive analysis and the modal split models, market demand and market share of the school transport modes are analyzed, and applications of how to use the models are shown in the benefit of the Saudi' households and the private companies.

Forecasting long-term urban water demand is very important in water resources planning and management. In particular, faced with the threat of urban water scarcity, strategies and policies are required, and these need to be based on reliable water demand forecasts. However, there are many problems involved in forecasting long-term water demand, such as limited knowledge about the relationship between water use and the factors affecting it, uncertainties over the future and assumptions employed, the availability of water use data, etc. In China, little effort has been devoted to water demand forecasting, although water resources planning has been widely undertaken, and urban water shortage is currently a serious problem. In the light of the above, an overall approach to forecasting long-term urban water demand forecasting in China was undertaken. After reviewing the literature, the Chinese urban water demand system was analysed systematically, in terms of the four water use sectors: residential, industrial, agricultural and commercial. Based on the results revealed by the analyses, a system dynamic simulation model was built for forecasting longterm urban water demand. A case study has also been carried out to apply the model and to evaluate its performance. Compared to static models that have been developed in the literature, the system dynamic simulation model that has been developed in this study is superior in terms of the following aspects: (1) it clearly takes the time variable into account; (2) the system dynamic model allows alternative forecasts to be obtained easily and explicitly; and (3) the step-by-step procedures used in the system dynamic simulation give explicit and clear statements about the changing processes of the explanatory variables rather than simply accepting them as inputs.

This thesis is concerned with the regional dimensions of Polish EU rural development policies. Two major streams in this research, theoretical and practical, correspond to the core intertwined research questions: " What (if any) policy regionalisation is desirable for EU rural policies in Poland? " How should the rural development process be conceptualised with what implications for regionalisation of policy? This research has a direct policy linkage as under the EC legislation Poland has a possibility to implement rural development programmes at "an appropriate geographical level". This thesis explores whether the region (at NUTS 2 level) is such an appropriate level. The thesis is structured around four potential justifications for policy regionalisationin Poland: 1) regionally differentiated rural development patterns across Polish regions; 2) heterogeneityo f regionalp referencesfo r rural policiesa nd their legitimacy; 3) territorial fairness and compliance with regional cohesion objectives, safeguarded by specific regionally set policy budgets; 4) political feasibility. In conclusion, a synthetic framework is proposed, based on a complex system approach. The thesis sprang from a participant observation experience in setting Polish EU preaccession policies. It adopts a multidisciplinary perspective with elements from development economics, economic geography, political studies, regional science, sociolinguistics, and policy evaluation leading to a complex system analysis. A multiplicity of data has been mobilized: participant observation, secondary statistical data, past policy data as well as a series of semi-structured interviews. The empirical analysis suggests there is little evidence of the relevance of NUTS 2 level for rural policy making in the Polish EU context based on the propositions examined here. However, rural policy regionalisation can be more adequately conceptualized as a process, not as a policy desideratum. The forces driving policy regionalisation in Poland are weakly developed at present, but predicted to gain in force in longer term, implying that regionalised policies may become more relevant in the future. The theoretical strand of the thesis leads to a formulation of an integrated framework for rural policy analysis. The model recognizes that the policy making has a multiple rationality, namely actors perform a multiplicity of actions in economic, political and cognitive paradigms when setting and implementing policy, embedded in, and feeding back to fundamental resource capacities. It is argued that such a conceptualization has significant policy consequences, putting the multi-rational policy process rather than purely policy outputs at the centre of policy advice and analysis.

Jeddah is one of the most rapidly growing cities in Saudi Arabia. It has been transformed from a small town, enclosed by walls, into a metropolitan area in only about three decades. Housing construction has taken place everywhere in the city. This study describes the chronological development of the housing of Jeddah, the principal sea port of Saudi Arabia on the Red Sea and the gateway to the Holy City of Makkah. The study intends to identify the housing types and to analyse and illustrate the changes occurring in the residential units. It comprises four parts : The first part gives general background information about Jeddah. The second discusses the housing in its socio-physical context within the city, including the environment in which houses were built, namely the neighbourhood, housing types and their spatial concepts and construction techniques. The third deals with the main factors promoting change in housing and the physical structure of the city. The fourth is an attempt to present an overview of the architectural styles and trends in the city.

This thesis investigates the relationship between planning and the construction industry. It puts forward the concept of Planning Construction Interactions (Pl.C.I) and sets out to validate this concept by the examination of three hypotheses. The production of the built environment is a complex process involving the activities of different agents. The physical evidence of the development process is found in the form of hospitals, houses, roads and physical and social infrastructure. The construction industry is one of the main actors in the development process which plays an important role in the economic development by its contribution to Value Added, Capital Formation, Gross Domestic Product and Employment Generation. The failure of development plans in many developing countries is due to many factors. There is evidence from these countries of plans having been devised on the basis of inappropriate policy agendas and technology. The source of inappropriacy is often foreign technology and expertise. In order to identify the constraints to development, the planning construction processes are examined in three countries: Iran, China and Japan. The main part of the thesis is devoted to Iran. In this context a detailed analysis of economic development and physical planning since the end of the Second World War is presented. As a result of this investigation a number of factors are identified which have a direct impact on the construction industry. It is also argued that development policies have a direct impact on the choice of construction technology and materials. Appropriate technology is commonly thought to offer a panacea. The result of a case study of the process of technology transfer is presented. The Iranian case identifies the reasons for failure of appropriate technology whilst the examination of the Chinese development demonstrates the importance of appropriate technology in national development since the 1949 revolution. A part of the thesis is devoted to the study of the planning and construction processes in Japan. This is focused on the role of the construction industry in the economic development of that country and how it is affected by government actions. Japan offers an interesting mechanism of planning and implementation processes. This developed from the introduction of a series of land use planning policies allowing for the involvement of the private construction sector in the financing and provision of infrastructure in urban areas. A series of recommendations are made in the context of post war Iran. A possible framework for the development of the construction industry is put forward which emphasises the use of appropriate technology and building materials. This is seen as part of the integrated development planning approach.

The primary objective of this thesis is to explain how a particular council estate in Stockton-on-Tees became run-down and disadvantaged. However, the pursuit of such an explanation demands a historical, social, political and economic perspective embracing the conurbation within which the estate is located. In fact, it is necessary to go beyond the confines of Teesside and take account of national and international processes and forces. With regard to national influences, these have played a crucial role in the urban growth of Stockton and in the progressive diminution of its public housing sector to create an increasingly residualised welfare tenure. Moreover, central mechanisms and decisions taken by international capital have de-industrialised the Teesside conurbation and led to high and long-term unemployment. So disadvantage has increased for this and other reasons, and the minority of the population suffering it are largely housed in council accommodation. Local characteristics and factors also play a crucial part in the way that central forces impact on a locality, mediating and modifying their consequences depending on the particular configuration of industrial, social, etc., features that impart to local areas their unique traditions and identities. Yet, significant as this interaction is between central forces and local factors in creating a poorer stock of council housing and the disadvantaged families who live in it, to explain how and why particular run-down areas arise can also demand a closer focus on individual estates to explore specific causes. A further theme of this study concerns the possibilities and mechanisms of change on disadvantaged estates. One such period of change on Ragworth is examined in the light of before-and-after survey research, as is a new regime of decentralised management which followed. Finally, the effects of current policy initiatives are measured against the immense problems posed by the shifts in the social class structure represented by the growth of disadvantage and the emergence of what has been described as an underclass.