Improvements to maize cob storage on farms in the Volta Region of Ghana were investigated with a view to limiting the damage and losses associated with the Larger Grain Borer (Prostephanus truncatus) and weevils (Sitophilus spp). The study was initiated by a survey of those technologies adopted following an earlier project to help farmers protect maize against P. truncatus. The study included farmers’ perceptions of their own storage problems and was designed to provide background information on how farmers might benefit from a novel technique of applying pesticide to only the basal layers of cobs on the platform. Field trials, comparing losses in experimental maize platforms showed that treatment of only the bottom 20% of maize cobs, with Actellic Super (permethrin and pirimiphosmethyl) in dust or emulsion formulation, could give protection that was significantly better than no treatment and not significantly different from full treatment. When combined with placing a plastic sheet over the platform there was a significant reduction in losses while the presence of preharvest infestation resulted in somewhat higher losses. Farmer participatory trials demonstrated that farmers could implement the technique successfully by themselves and subsequent analysis showed that a range of major stakeholders perceived benefits from the method and reaffirmed it as a practical approach. The cost effectiveness of the method was investigated based on assumptions about maize losses and prices. This analysis suggested that targeted treatment is likely to be cost-effective under a wide range of circumstances. However, it was concluded that the safest option for farmers would be to use targeted treatment for those platforms that would be consumed during the course of the year and use full treatment for platforms destined for long-term storage (>6 months). It is suggested that such an approach would widen farmer access to stock protection and improve food security and livelihoods.

Oritrophium peruvianum (Lam.) Cuatr. is a perennial species, endemic to the Páramos of the Cordillera of Los Andes. In Venezuela, where it is known as Frailejón morado, it is harvested for its widely acclaimed medicinal properties in treating asthma, bronchitis, and influenza. This study aimed to investigate the biology and ecology of O. peruvianum and the impacts of harvesting on its populations. Undisturbed populations of O. peruvianum were dominated by adult vegetative individuals, with middle-sized plants prevailing and with low densities of large adults, whilst densities of small plants were variable. The population structure changed slightly after one year and annual plant growth was shown to be extremely slow. Flowering started at the beginning of the rainfall period and overlapped with fruiting throughout the wet season (April to November), with only a few scattered individuals reproducing during the dry season. Seed production was very variable and germination under experimental conditions was successful (51 to 88%). The population dynamics of two populations were analyzed using a five stages time-invariant linear matrix model with field data collected over two years. The growth rate of the first population was higher (?1 =1.32) than that of the second population (?1 = 1.13). Sensitivity analysis showed that their growth rates were more sensitive to a change in the survival of individuals than to reproduction, due to the low survival rate of newly emerged seedlings. Plants were contributing more to the growth rate if they remained in the same stage class than if they grew to the following stage class. The most significant transition was the survival of stage class 3 (small adults) whilst stage class 5 (large adults) contributed little to the population growth rate. A uniform harvesting of the adult stages each year up to 21% and 43% respectively in each of the two populations could be applied without threatening their survivals. The harvesting of small adults would affect the growth rates of the populations most, whilst the complete removal of stage class 5 would have the least impact. The most sustainable practical policy, considering larger plants with higher economic value, allows harvesting of all plants from stage class 5 in both populations, each year. In the population with the higher proportion of plants in stage class 3, more than one half (63%) of this stage class could be also harvested, whilst in the second population 83% of the plants from stage class 4 (middle-sized plants) could be harvested instead.

The objectives of this research were to examine the effect of the sucrose polyester coating Semperfresh® on the physiology and biochemistry of ‘Conference’ pear tissues; to determine how Semperfresh® affects the rate of tissue invasion by Penicillium expansum and Monilinia fructigena; and to determine the physiological basis for any such effect. ‘Conference’ pears coated with 0.5 or 1% Semperfresh® and sampled after 0, 2, 4, and 5 months storage at 0°C showed signs of delayed ripening as indicated by the recorded firmness, sugar contents, starch contents, and colour data. Additional information indicated that Semperfresh® had a greater effect on firmness when compared to other quality attributes such as colour and starch conversion. Semperfresh® (1%) significantly reduced the external and internal lesion dimensions recorded after artificial inoculation with P. expansum and M. fructigena, having a greater effect on the rate of growth of Monilinia fructigena in comparison to Penicillium expansum. When fruits were exposed to controlled atmosphere (CA) environments to generate a similar internal gas atmosphere (IGA) to that induced by coating there was a decrease in the rate of lesion growth for P. expansum and M. fructigena. Generally the magnitude of the effect varied accordingly to the extent of IGA modification in the same way for fruit which are coated and those in CA. The gas atmosphere developing in 1% Semperfresh® coated fruit was reproduced using 8% CO2 combined with 7% O2. Coated and CA stored ‘Conference’ pears inoculated with M. fructigena presented similar lesion dimensions which were significantly reduced in comparison to non-coated material. Submitting the fruits to 10% CO2 + 5% O2 for four days before and one day after inoculation delays the progression of the rot. However, when the fruits were returned to air, the rate of growth of M. fructigena resumed at a similar rate to the control.

In plants, normal anther and pollen development involves many important biological events and complex molecular regulatory coordination. Understanding the gene regulatory relationships during male reproductive development is essential for fundamental biology and crop breeding. In this work, a rice gene co-expression network was developed for anther development (RiceAntherNet) that allows prediction of gene regulatory relationships during pollen development. RiceAntherNet was generated from 57 microarrays derived from rice anther tissue across all developmental stages. The microarray datasets from 9 rice male sterile mutants, including msp1-4, ostdl1a, gamyb-2, tip2, udt1-1, tdr, eat1-1, ptc1 and mads3-4 mutants were used to explore and test the anther development network. Among the changed genes, three clades showing differential expression patterns were further constructed to identify genes associated with pollen formation during anther development. Consistent with the functional predictions, in Clade 1, 7 reported genes (OsABCG15, OsLAP5, OsLAP6, DPW, CYP703A3, OsNP1 and OsCP1) were confirmed to participate in pollen wall formation in rice. Furthermore, Clade 1 contained 12 genes with predicted orthologs in Arabidopsis that have been reported as key genes during pollen development in Arabidopsis and may play similar roles in rice. A website is also provided to present plots of the expression profiles for gene characterisation. This will assist in determining the key relationships between genes involved in pollen development, thus enabling characterization of critical genes associated with these regulatory networks. 9 candidate genes predicted by RiceAntherNet were chose for further study. Mutants of these genes were obtained by CRISPR-Cas9 editing system. Phenotyping of these mutants indicate their function in rice pollen wall formation, which provides additional evidence that RiceAntherNet is a valuable tool for identifying novel genes during anther and pollen development in plants. The reliability of RiceAntherNet offers the possibility of using reverse genetics approaches for novel gene characterization. TIP2 was shown to be involved in cell differentiation at early stages of pollen development and previous studies suggested the presence of a TIP2-mediated transcription cascade that regulates tapetum development in rice. In this study, downstream genes of TIP2 were predicted by reverse genetics approaches including microarray data analysis, gene expression patterns and gene promoter analysis. This work not only helps to explore the function of TIP2 and its regulatory network, but also offers the possibility of using reverse genetic approaches for novel gene characterization.

The world over the past decades has gone through some steady bio-physical and socio-demographical changes. Specifically, climate change (leading to increased temperature, salinization, drought etc.), population explosion, urbanization and migration (especially, rural to urban migration), among others have resulted in a new set of global challenges. In this regard, the threat to global food security has been recognised as one of the key challenges facing humanity in this 21st century. The Green Revolution of the 1960s was a major success in safeguarding global food security and still remains relevant. Nonetheless, it left behind some negative footprints. Worthy of note, is the ‘erosion’ in species diversity due to the mono-culture cultivation systems it was primarily design for. For this reason, there are serious concerns that the yield gains possible with the small number of ‘major’ staple crop species [mainly cereals; wheat (Triticum spp.), rice (Oryza sativa) and maize (Zea mays) that have supported our food through the Green Revolution for the past four decades may not be enough to sustain a growing global population in the face of climate change. Recently, the accession that there is the need for policy shift on addressing global food security, away from the classical concept of the ‘Green Revolution’ is gaining some level of acceptance. Against this backdrop, exploiting underutilised crop plants with an abundance of genetic resources and potentially beneficial traits is seen as one of the solutions that could provide a more diversified agricultural system and additional food sources. For this reason, Bambara groundnut [Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.] has provided a focus for exemplar studies particularly in the developing world (Africa), through its ability to produce yields with minimal inputs in drought prone environments. However, typical of most underutilised species which have suffered neglect within the research community, landraces which have been selected by farmers remain the main source of planting materials. These landrace collections, in most cases may not possess the ‘optimum combinations’ of phenotypic traits desired by potential stakeholders interested in the crop (particularly; consumers, processors and farmers). The ability to develop improved germplasm resources of Bambara groundnut (through controlled breeding) is an important step towards harnessing the potentials of the crop to address food and nutritional security concerns. In this light, the need to establish a ‘coordinated breeding programmes’ for Bambara groundnut has gain some level of attention. As part of this initiative, this project reports herein; 1.Identification and critical analysis of core breeding objectives for Bambara groundnut that could be of particular importance to various stakeholders across the value chain of the crop. Additionally, a conceptual breeding framework that could serve as de facto guide for current and future breeding programmes has been reported. 2.Diversity (genetic and phenotypic) and population structure analysis of Bambara groundnut ‘global germplasm’ with emphasis on its implications for breeding programmes. Potential implications for ‘domestication theory’ have also been highlighted. Additionally, a conceptual framework of population structure of Bambara groundnut indicating its utility and linkages for crop improvement programme has been reported. 3.Heritability and response to selection (genetic advance) estimates of phenotypic traits in F2 genotypes of Bambara groundnut. 4.Development of improved germplasm resources for traits analysis in Bambara groundnut (with potential for drought studies). 5.Mapping and QTL analysis of phenotypic traits in F2 and F3 derived genotypes of Bambara groundnut.

In Malaysia, oil palm is the main commodity crop and has strongly contributed to the country’s economic development. However, the industry is facing several challenges including diminishing land resource for expansion. One of the targets to ensure oil palm sustainability is to increase yield per unit area without affecting its quality and with minimal impact to the environment. The non-synchronized ripening process and shedding of the fruits is among the factors that limit yield improvement and affect oil quality. Thus, the present study was conducted to deepen our understanding of the changes that occur within the fresh fruit bunch (FFB) during fruit development. This work also takes into account the various fruit positions (inner, middle and outer) and locations (apical, central and basal) within the bunch. In the present study, physiological, biochemical and molecular analyses were performed using fruits from various stages of fruit development. Physiological and biochemical analyses included measurements of carotenoid, FAC (fatty acid composition) and ethylene production. UV-Vis spectrophotometer, gas chromatography mass spectrophotometry (GCMS) and GC equipped with flame ionization detector (FID) were used to estimate and quantify the β-carotene content, FAC and ethylene production from the fruit mesocarp from young until the ripening stages. Results showed that changes in the β-carotene content, FAC and ethylene production throughout the fruit developmental stages from young until ripening were significant (p < 0.001). Both accumulation of the β-carotene and ethylene production increased as the fruits developed and reached the maximum at the ripest stage used in this study. Similarly, changes in the FAC was observed especially in palmitic, oleic, stearic and linoleic acid throughout the fruit developmental process where the level of oleic acid was found to be the highest in the ripest fruit stage used in this study, surpassing that of palmitic acid. In the present study, it was also observed that fruit positioned within the spikelets throughout the bunch at the various fruit developmental stage from young until ripening showed significant changes (p < 0.001) in the β-carotene content and FAC. For β-carotene, the outer fruits have the highest content while the inner fruits have the least. For FAC, palmitic and stearic acids were higher in the outer fruits as compared to the inner fruits while the levels of oleic and linoleic acids were in contrast to that of palmitic and stearic. The inner fruits also recorded higher iodine value (IV) than the outer fruits. Ethylene production in the ripe bunch was not influenced by the fruit location or position within the bunch. Thus, the molecular mechanism of ethylene perception during fruit developmental processes, including ripening and abscission were investigated. In the present study, with the use of the oil palm genome sequence data, the oil palm ethylene receptor family which comprised of seven putative ethylene receptors including three splice variants were identified. In addition, combination of in silico bioinformatics tools and laboratory bench work also resulted in the successful isolation and characterisation of the putative ethylene receptor genes and their corresponding promoters. The putative regulatory motifs in the promoters provide a means to understand the possible mechanisms that drive the expression of the ethylene receptor genes. Expression analyses of the ethylene receptors in various oil palm tissues suggest multiple roles of the ethylene receptors in regulating many processes in oil palm which includes fruit development and fruit abscission. Subsequently, the effect of gene(s) that influence oil quality was also investigated in this study. The full-length FLL1 gene encoding a lipase class 3 and its corresponding promoter were successfully isolated and characterised. FLL1 was expressed highly in the mesocarp tissues and at various developmental stages and at a much higher expression in the cold induced ripe fruits. Promoter analysis via transient expression assay using GUS as the reporter gene showed that the GUS expression in the mesocarp slices was targeted especially to the vascular bundles. Southern analysis of the FLL1 gene revealed the gene to belong to a multigene family. With the availability of the oil palm genome sequence data, sixty-two predicted proteins with identities ranging from 26 to 83% to FLL1 were identified indicating that there may be more lipase class 3 genes involved in the breakdown of TAGs in the oil palm thus affecting the oil quality. From this study, it can be concluded that fruit development in oil palm is a complex process involving physiological, biochemical and molecular changes within the bunch throughout the ripening process and is affected by the position of the fruits within the spikelets. Since changes within the bunch were not influenced by the fruit location within the bunch, this may provide a simpler method for bunch analysis where changes within the whole bunch can just be represented by the fruits from a mix of all fruits positioned within the spikelet from the apical region of the bunch. The molecular studies on the identification, isolation and characterisation of the genes and promoter of the ethylene receptors and lipase class 3 gene families also would be useful for genetic manipulation of oil palm especially for modifying oil composition and production of higher value products.

A long experiment has been established since 2000 at CATIE (Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center), Turrialba, Costa Rica. Twenty agro-forestry systems with different shade types and managements (organic and non-organic) consisting of an incomplete randomized block-design with shade tree as main effect and subplots represented by management were set up. The mean 13-year yield, bienniality index (BI) of coffee yield, pruning, shade cover and morphology (height, diameter, total branches and productive branches) of coffee plants in these agro-forestry systems were measured. The effects of different managements and shade types on the physical and chemical attributes of green coffee beans and aroma and colour generation of roasted coffee beans were investigated. The organic management always showed the more stable production, while the coffee yield and morphology were always worse under the intensive organic (IO) management than under the intensive conventional (IC) management. Comparing with the moderate conventional (MC) management, the intensive organic (IO) management did not only have a similar or even higher productivity, but it also had higher total lipid and protein in the green beans and a stronger ability to generate more flavour and colour. The full sun system had a higher total coffee yield and bienniality index (BI) of coffee yield, green bean density and total protein content and greater flavour generation and colour after roasting. Comparing with the timber system, the service system did not only have the higher coffee yield and better coffee plant morphology, but it also produced green beans with higher total protein and roasted beans with the more flavour and colour. Comparing with the non-legume shade tree, the legume shade tree only influenced the total protein content of green coffee beans and further improved the performance of flavour and colour in the roasted coffee beans.

Minimal processing of fresh-cut pineapple (Ananas comosus L.) is time and labour consuming as it has thick inedible skin and large crown. Liberation of cellular contents at the site of wounding can promote the growth of microorganisms and limit the storage life of fresh-cut pineapple. Therefore, ultrasound treatment at different power input and exposure time was used to investigate its effectiveness on the storage life of fresh-cut pineapple. To determine the antimicrobial effect of ultrasound on the proliferation of spoilage microorganisms three different ultrasound power inputs (17, 25 and 29 W) and treatment times (5, 10 and 15 min) during 7 days of storage at 7 oC were applied on co. Josapine. The application of ultrasound at the power input of 25 and 29 W for 10 and 15 min, respectively, inhibited the growth of mesophilic, lactic acid bacteria and yeast and moulds. On day 5, it was found that 29 W for 15 min treatment resulted in the lowest growth of mesophilic, lactic acid bacteria and yeast and mould counts. However, changes in the proliferation of spoilage microorganism were observed among samples treated at 25 W: 10 min, 25 W: 15 min and 29 W: 10 min. The storage life of ultrasound treated fresh-cut pineapple was extended by 2 days in comparison to those washed in distilled water (dH2O). The ideal ultrasound power input (25 and 29 W) and treatment time (10 and 15 min) were then used to study the effect of treatment on the production of intracellular ROS and extent of oxidative damage in fresh-cut pineapple. Increments in ROS concentration when exposed to ultrasound treatment negatively correlated with populations of mesophiles, lactic acid bacteria and yeast and mould. Higher ROS contents may have induced disease resistance in fresh-cut pineapple. However, increments in power input and treatment time to 29 W and 15 min resulted in the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) as indicated by higher malondialdehyde (MDA) content during cold storage. Ultrasound treatment also invoked oxidative stress and induced defence mechanisms in fresh-cut pineapple by regulating phenolic metabolism and recycling of ascorbate concentration. Induction of phenylalanine ammonia lyase and inhibition of polyphenol oxidase and polyphenol peroxidase activity in fresh-cut pineapple upon exposure to ultrasound treatment resulted in higher total phenolic concentration. Similarly, the redox state of ascorbate as indicated by lower concentrations of dehydroascorbic acid was better maintained following ultrasound treatment due to the induction of monodehydroascorbate reductase and dehydroascorbate reductase activity. Likewise, the total antioxidant capacity of fresh-cut pineapple treated at 25 W for 10 was found higher in comparison to other treatments during 5 days of storage at 7 oC. The effect of ultrasound treatment on the physico-chemical and physiological changes in fresh-cut pineapple was also assessed in this study. Ultrasound treatment at 25 W for 10 min retained 98% of initial firmness and did not result in changes in the juice leakage, colour parameters, soluble solid concentration and titratable acidity in regards to control after 5 days of storage. Meanwhile, the increment of ultrasound power input and treatment time to 29 W and 15 min had resulted in the lowest SSC concentration with the highest volume of juice leakage and respiration rate in fresh-cut pineapple during 5 days of cold storage. In conclusion, an ultrasound treatment at 25 W for 10 min optimally inhibited the growth of spoilage microorganisms and extended the storage life for 2 days. Higher reduction of spoilage microorganisms was achieved when the ultrasound power input and treatment time was increased to 29 W and 15 min but it caused higher accumulation of ROS which reduced the nutraceutical concentration of fresh-cut pineapple following 5 days of cold storage.

Bacterial contamination and anthracnose development on bell pepper pose a threat to food safety and food security. Bacteria contamination by pathogenic species can be a fatal outbreak and risking worldwide population. Meanwhile, anthracnose development on bell pepper can contribute to substantial product loses which will substantially affect world economy and food availability. Current postharvest treatment such as the use of chlorine and fungicide poses harmful effects on human and environment due to the production of carcinogenic by-products. This leads to urgency to develop a safe postharvest treatment which leads to the objective of this study to develop a new postharvest treatment; ozone fumigation which has high potential to reduce bacterial contamination and anthracnose development on bell pepper. Ozone fumigation treatment is safe to human and environment and very practical. This technology is promising hence, worth to study. This study investigated the effect of ozone fumigation on 1) growth of Escherichia coli O157, Salmonella enterica sv. Typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes; selected pathogens that contributed to food poisoning in fruit 2) development of anthracnose disease on bell pepper caused by Colletotrichum capsici 3) activity of defense related enzymes 4) antioxidant capacity of bell pepper 5) physico chemical, physiology and sensory qualities of bell pepper. Antibacterial studies was conducted on fresh cut bell pepper with treatments of 0, 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 ppm ozone for 0.5, 3, 6 and 24 h at 18 - 20 ̊C, 95% RH. The results showed that ozone reduced growth of E. coli O157, Salmonella Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes populations where optimal dosage was 9 ppm ozone for 6 h. This ozone dosage resulted in 2.89, 2.56 and 3.06 log reduction of E. coli O157, Salmonella Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes populations, respectively. Scanning electron micrograph showed that the bacterial population was inactivated by disrupting the cell structure which leads to cell lysis. Ozone also reduced anthracnose development on bell pepper. Colletotrichum capsici, the causal agent of anthracnose on bell pepper was treated with 0, 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 ppm ozone for 24, 72 and 120 h. The results showed that exposure to 7 ppm ozone for 72 h had the highest inhibition in disease incidence (34.8%) and disease severity (41.2%). This inhibition was non-significantly different to fruit exposed to 3, 5 and 9 ppm ozone for 72 h. The inhibition was due to effect of ozone on mycelia morphology where ozone inhibited mycelia development by inducing hyphae branching. Besides, the ozone dosage also significantly reduced spore production (31.6%) and spore germination (100%). Increasing ozone dosage by prolonging the exposure to 120 h induced fungal sporulation and had no significant effect on disease development. Reduction in anthracnose disease development was correlated with activity of plant defense enzymes. Increase in activity of plant defense enzymes such as phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), polyphenol oxidase (PPO), peroxidase (POD) and β-1,3-glucanase was found to reduce variation in disease incidence on bell pepper. Optimal enzyme activity was observed from exposure to 3 ppm ozone for PAL, PPO and β-1,3-glucanase and 3 and 5 ppm ozone for POD. This showed that ozone inhibit disease incidence on fruit by stimulating the activity of plant defense enzymes as well as reducing mycelia elongation, spore germination and spore production. Analysis on antioxidant content and antioxidant capacity of bell pepper showed ozone dosage of 3 ppm ozone for 72 h was the most effective dose to induce fruit ascorbic acid (26.6%) and total phenol content (15.2%) which reflect antioxidant capacity (15.3%) of bell pepper. Further increase in ozone concentration reduced fruit antioxidant content and its capacity. Analysis on fruit β-carotene content showed negative correlation with fruit antioxidant capacity hence, suggested that β-carotene may not be the major antioxidant in the bell pepper under study. The increase in fruit antioxidants from exposure to 3 ppm ozone for 72 h reduced fruit oxidative status (malondialdehyde (MDA) content) and resulted in no oxidative damage. This maintained fruit ripening progress similar to control as indicated by fruit respiration, colour development, soluble solid concentration and titratable acidity. The ozone dosage also maintained fruit water content similar to control hence, maintaining its firmness during storage. Meanwhile, exposure to higher ozone dosage; 7 and 9 ppm ozone for 72 h; increased cell oxidative status which resulted in oxidative damage as observed in high MDA content and increase in membra ne permeability. This enhanced ripening progress as indicated by progressive colour development, increase in soluble solid concentration and reduction in titratable acidity and firmness. This quality deterioration negatively affected fruit flavour hence, not preferred by the panellist. Thus, under current observation, this study showed exposure to 3 ppm ozone for 72 h reduced populations of foodborne pathogen, decreased anthracnose development, increased plant defense enzyme as well as enhanced its antioxidant capacity. It can be used as an alternative to chlorine and fungicide and eliminate the risk of producing harmful by-products. Ozone treatment is also very practical where it can be installed in truck or shipping container which allows the treatment to be carried out during transport. This reduces fruit handling time and labour cost.

Global crop production is affected by seasonal and climatic variations in temperature, rainfall patterns or intensity and the occurrence of abiotic and biotic stresses. Climate change can alter pest and pathogen populations as well as pathogen complexes that pose an enormous risk to crop yields and future food security. Crop simulation models have been validated as an important tool for the development of more resilient agricultural systems and improved decision making for growers. The Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM) is a software tool that enables sub-models to be incorporated for simulation of production in diverse agricultural systems. Modification of APSIM to incorporate epidemiological disease model for crop growth and yield under different disease intensities has few attempts in the UK or elsewhere. The overall aim of this project is to model disease impact on wheat for improved food security in two different agro-ecological zones. The incidence of wheat diseases between 2009 and 2014 in two different agro-ecological zones, UK and Oman were compared. Most of the fields surveyed in Oman and UK were found to have at least one disease. Leaf spot was the most prevalent foliar disease found in Omani fields while Septoria was the most common foliar disease in the UK. Fusarium followed by eyespot and ear blight represents the most common diseases of stem and ears in UK winter wheat between 2009 and 2014. However, in Omani wheat Fusarium causing stem base and loose smut of ears were the most common. Eyespot was not found in Omani winter wheat and this may relate to the high temperature during winter in Oman. This study discussed the first work on the occurrence of fungal diseases and their pathogens in Oman and the influence of agronomy factors. Large numbers of pathogenic fungi causing symptoms were found to be prevalent in wheat fields in Oman. Isolation from six symptomatic wheat varieties resulted in 36 different fungal species. Alternaria alternata was the most frequently isolated pathogen followed by Bipolaris sorokiniana, Setosphaeria rostrata, and Fusarium equiseti. Results also showed some agronomic practices influenced disease incidence. Mechanical sowing method and time of urea application were found to influence leaf spot disease. An investigation into the recovery of treatment cost for eyespot control through yield and the effect of fungicide treatment on risk showed that all fungicides apart from (epoxiconazole) Opus at 1 L ha-1 were found to be worth the costs, either under high disease pressure (inoculated sites) or naturally infected sites. For the risk averse manger fungicide treatment would be worth the cost as it would reduce the higher level of disease and consequently minimise associated yield losses. In this work, disease models were built to predict the disease development and yield loss in relation to crop phenology using results from previous literature on conditions favouring sporulation, infection and disease development and severity. Analysis of 461 data sets showed that climatic conditions and agronomic factors significantly influenced disease development either positively or negatively in all models. The application of a range of fungicides at GS31/32 reduced disease significantly at GS39 in comparison to epoxiconazole alone. Disease severity at GS39 decreased yield only slightly by 2.2% whilst only (prothioconazole) Proline 275 increased yield significantly with almost 30% yield increase. The performance of the APSIM wheat model to simulate phenology, leaf area index, biomass and grain yield of two winter wheat varieties (Okley and Cashel) was evaluated under UK conditions and the previously developed eyespot disease were linked with APSIM. Generally, APSIM poorly predicted the phenology, LAI, biomass and yield of winter wheat grown under UK conditions. The linked eyespot disease models with APSIM simulated an adequate level of disease predication at GS12/13 (9.6%), GS31/32 (1.3%) and GS39 (12%). Overall, the link between eyespot epidemiological disease models and crop growth model has successfully provided the basis for further development of the model and enhance crop growth simulation. Moreover identification of main diseases threatening wheat production in Oman can help to plan for future research, to assess the economic importance and to contrast environment models for yield loss.