The transcription factors SMAD2 and SMAD3 are the effectors of classical transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) signalling. This signalling cascade is involved in many cellular processes including proliferation and differentiation and is known to be a potent inhibitor of myogenic differentiation through SMAD3. We have previously shown that retinoic acid (RA) can upregulate SMAD3 in models of adipogenesis and mesenchymal stem cells and that SMAD3 can interact with the bZIP transcription factor C/EBPβ to disrupt its DNA binding. Forced expression of C/EBPβ inhibits myogenic differentiation but the mechanism has not been fully elucidated. Herein we show that RA increases Smad3 expression in myoblasts and that RA treatment antagonizes TGFβ-mediated inhibition of myogenic differentiation. TGFβ treatment increased C/EBPβ expression which was reversed by RA treatment. Further, RA was able to disrupt C/EBPβ occupancy of the Pax7 and Smad2 promoters in myoblasts. Loss of C/EBPβ in primary myoblasts using a conditional knockout model partially protected these cells from the anti-myogenic effects of TGFβ treatment. The TGFβ effector protein SMAD2 is expressed in myoblasts but its specific function in myogenesis has not been determined, as Smad2 knockout models are embryonic lethal. Thus, we created a novel Smad2 conditional knockout model where Smad2 is excised in PAX7-expressing muscle satellite cells. Herein we demonstrate a role for SMAD2 specifically in myogenic fusion. We describe a regeneration defect after acute injury and decreased fiber cross-sectional area at P21 (post-natal day 21) in Smad2cKO muscle, without affecting the numbers of PAX7-positive cells. Further, we reveal a mechanism whereby SMAD2 regulates KLF4 expression and mediates the KLF4-induced increased of the fusion gene Npnt. This work describes the pro-myogenic actions of RA-induced SMAD3 and the novel function of SMAD2 in terminal myogenic differentiation and fusion. This work also discusses future directions, implications and new insights into non-canonical SMAD actions.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第21336号 / 医博第4394号 / 新制||医||1031(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 横出 正之, 教授 岩井 一宏, 教授 戸口田 淳也 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

No description available.

The vitamin D metabolite 1,25(OH)2D3 has long been known to inhibit growth of prostate cancer cells and this mainly through a VDR-mediated pathway controlling target gene expression, resulting in cell cycle arrest, apoptosis and differentiation. Another major way in which 1,25(OH)2D3 inhibits cell growth in prostate cancer is via membrane-initiated steroid signalling, which triggers activation of signal cascades upon steroid binding to a receptor complex, leading to induction of genes regulating cell growth, proliferation and apoptosis. The main prostate cancer inhibiting membrane-initiated route is the TGFβ signalling pathway, elicited by the protein TGFβ. Two other important proteins downstream in this cascade are Smad2 and Smad3. In this study the early effects of 1,25(OH)2D3 on activated Smad2/3 levelsin PC-3 prostate cancer cells were examined. PC-3 cells were incubated for 3, 5, 10, 30 and 60 minutes as well as 38 hours both together with 1,25(OH)2D3 of the concentrations 10-10 and 10-7 M and without. Western Blots were then performed on supernatants from the cells treated followed by treatment of the membranes with primary antibodies against phosphorylated Smad2/3 C-terminal linker regions, alkaline phosphatase conjugated secondary antibodies and finally visualization with BCIP/ NBT tablets. As the downstream cascade protein JNK is a proposed activator of Smad2/3, this procedure was also repeated with a JNK inhibitor. This is a follow-up to an earlier study which examined the influence of 1,25(OH)2D3 on TGFβ levels using the same doses and time points and which found that 1,25(OH)2D3 initially lowered the level of active TGFβ, then increased it. The results of this study indicated a 1,25(OH)2D3 mediated induction of the same pattern in the levels of active Smad2 and 3, both with and without JNK inhibitor. The results did not indicate that 1,25(OH)2D3 activates the Smad2/3 C-terminal linker region via the JNK pathway.

The vitamin D metabolite 1,25(OH)2D3 has long been known to inhibit growth of prostate cancer cells and this mainly through a VDR-mediated pathway controlling target gene expression, resulting in cell cycle arrest, apoptosis and differentiation. Another major way inwhich 1,25(OH)2D3 inhibits cell growth in prostate cancer is via membrane-initiated steroid signalling, which triggers activation of signal cascades upon steroid binding to a receptor complex, leading to induction of genes regulating cell growth, proliferation and apoptosis. The main prostate cancer inhibiting membrane-initiated route is the TGFβ signalling pathway, elicited by the protein TGFβ. Another important protein downstream in this cascade is Smad2. In this study the early effects of 1,25(OH)2D3 on activated Smad2 levels in PC-3 prostate cancer cells were examined. PC-3 cells were incubated for 5, 10, 30 and 60 minutes as well as 24 and 40 hours both together with 1,25(OH)2D3 of the concentrations 10-10 and 107 M and without. An ELISA assay scanning for activated Smad2 was then performed on supernatants from both treated and untreated cells. This is a follow-up to an earlier study which examined the influence of 1,25(OH)2D3 on TGFβ levels using the same doses and similar time points and which found that 1,25(OH)2D3 initially lowered the level of active TGFβ, then increased it. The results of this study showed a statistically insignificant, time delayed 1,25(OH)2D3 mediated induction of the same pattern in the levels of active Smad2. / Project Work in Biomedicine, Advanced Level, 7.5 ECTS

<p>The vitamin D metabolite 1,25(OH)2D3 has long been known to inhibit growth of prostate cancer cells and this mainly through a VDR-mediated pathway controlling target gene expression, resulting in cell cycle arrest, apoptosis and differentiation. Another major way in which 1,25(OH)2D3 inhibits cell growth in prostate cancer is via membrane-initiated steroid signalling, which triggers activation of signal cascades upon steroid binding to a receptor complex, leading to induction of genes regulating cell growth, proliferation and apoptosis. The main prostate cancer inhibiting membrane-initiated route is the TGFβ signalling pathway, elicited by the protein TGFβ. Two other important proteins downstream in this cascade are Smad2 and Smad3. In this study the early effects of 1,25(OH)2D3 on activated Smad2/3 levelsin PC-3 prostate cancer cells were examined. PC-3 cells were incubated for 3, 5, 10, 30 and 60 minutes as well as 38 hours both together with 1,25(OH)2D3 of the concentrations 10-10 and 10-7 M and without. Western Blots were then performed on supernatants from the cells treated followed by treatment of the membranes with primary antibodies against phosphorylated Smad2/3 C-terminal linker regions, alkaline phosphatase conjugated secondary antibodies and finally visualization with BCIP/ NBT tablets. As the downstream cascade protein JNK is a proposed activator of Smad2/3, this procedure was also repeated with a JNK inhibitor. This is a follow-up to an earlier study which examined the influence of 1,25(OH)2D3 on TGFβ levels using the same doses and time points and which found that 1,25(OH)2D3 initially lowered the level of active TGFβ, then increased it. The results of this study indicated a 1,25(OH)2D3 mediated induction of the same pattern in the levels of active Smad2 and 3, both with and without JNK inhibitor. The results did not indicate that 1,25(OH)2D3 activates the Smad2/3 C-terminal linker region via the JNK pathway.</p>

<p>The vitamin D metabolite 1,25(OH)2D3 has long been known to inhibit growth of prostate cancer cells and this mainly through a VDR-mediated pathway controlling target gene expression, resulting in cell cycle arrest, apoptosis and differentiation. Another major way inwhich 1,25(OH)2D3 inhibits cell growth in prostate cancer is via membrane-initiated steroid signalling, which triggers activation of signal cascades upon steroid binding to a receptor complex, leading to induction of genes regulating cell growth, proliferation and apoptosis. The main prostate cancer inhibiting membrane-initiated route is the TGFβ signalling pathway, elicited by the protein TGFβ. Another important protein downstream in this cascade is Smad2. In this study the early effects of 1,25(OH)2D3 on activated Smad2 levels in PC-3 prostate cancer cells were examined. PC-3 cells were incubated for 5, 10, 30 and 60 minutes as well as 24 and 40 hours both together with 1,25(OH)2D3 of the concentrations 10-10 and 107 M and without. An ELISA assay scanning for activated Smad2 was then performed on supernatants from both treated and untreated cells. This is a follow-up to an earlier study which examined the influence of 1,25(OH)2D3 on TGFβ levels using the same doses and similar time points and which found that 1,25(OH)2D3 initially lowered the level of active TGFβ, then increased it. The results of this study showed a statistically insignificant, time delayed 1,25(OH)2D3 mediated induction of the same pattern in the levels of active Smad2.</p> / Project Work in Biomedicine, Advanced Level, 7.5 ECTS

Οι σπειραματονεφρίτιδες (ΣΝ) αποτελούν μια ομάδα νοσημάτων του σπειράματος ανοσολογικής αιτιολογίας που σε πολλές περιπτώσεις οδηγούν στην πλήρη καταστροφή του νεφρικού παρεγχύματος με αποτέλεσμα τη νεφρική ίνωση και την ανάγκη υποκατάστασης της νεφρικής λειτουργίας με μεθόδους εξωνεφικής κάθαρσης. Τα τελευταία χρόνια έχει σημειωθεί σημαντική πρόοδος στην ανίχνευση των μοριακών μηχανισμών που οδηγούν στη νεφρική ίνωση. Κεντρικό ρόλο στη διαδικασία αυτή φαίνεται να διαδραματίζει το Smad σηματοδοτικό μονοπάτι που διαμεσολαβεί τα σήματα του TGF-β στα νεφρικά κύτταρα. Ο ρόλος του TGF-β στη νεφρική βλάβη είναι πλέον καλά τεκμηριωμένος. Αντίθετα ελάχιστα είναι γνωστά για την έκφραση και τη λειτουργία του Smad σηματοδοτικού μονοπατιού στις ανθρώπινες ΣΝ. Ο σκοπός της παρούσας μελέτης ήταν η διερεύνηση της έκφρασης των παραγόντων pSmad2/3, p300, Sp1, Smad7 και Ski (μορίων που συμμετέχουν στο Smad σηματοδοτικό μονοπάτι) σε νεφρικές βιοψίες ασθενών με ΣΝ και η ανίχνευση της δράσης τους όσον αφορά την παθογένεση και την εξέλιξη της νεφρικής βλάβης. Χρησιμοποιήθηκαν 157 βιοψίες ασθενών με ΣΝ και 15 φυσιολογικά νεφρικά δείγματα από ασθενείς που είχαν υποβληθεί σε νεφρεκτομή για καρκίνο του νεφρού. Οι σπειραματονεφρίτιδες κατηγοριοποιήθηκαν σε πρωτοπαθείς (n=91) και δευτεροπαθείς (n=66) ή υπερπλαστικές (n=86) και μη υπερπλαστικές (n=71). Η μελέτη της έκφρασης των pSmad2/3, p300, Sp1, Smad7 και Ski έγινε με τη χρήση ανοσοϊστοχημικής μεθόδου. Έγιναν συσχετίσεις με κλινικά δεδομένα των ασθενών (κρεατινίνη ορού και λεύκωμα ούρων 24ώρου), καθώς και δείκτες ιστολογικής βλάβης (σπειραματοσκλήρυνση, διάμεση ίνωση, σωληναριακή ατροφία και διάμεση φλεγμονή). Παρατηρήθηκε πολύ μεγάλη αύξηση της έκφρασης των pSmad2/3, Sp1 και p300 σε όλα τα σπειραματικά κύτταρα των ΣΝ σε σχέση με την ομάδα ελέγχου. Επίσης, αυξήθηκε η έκφραση του πυρηνικού Smad7 στις υπερπλαστικές κυρίως ΣΝ με ταυτόχρονη εξάλειψη της κυτταροπλασματικής έκφρασής του σε όλες τις ΣΝ και παράλληλη μείωση της έκφρασης του Ski. Όσον αφορά τα σωληνάρια, στα εγγύς παρατηρήθηκε αύξηση της έκφρασης των pSmad2/3, Sp1 και p300 σε όλες τις ΣΝ και αύξηση του πυρηνικού Smad7 στις υπερπλαστικές, ενώ στα άπω και τα αθροιστικά παρατηρήθηκε αύξηση της έκφρασης του pSmad2/3 και του πυρηνικού Smad7 με ταυτόχρονη μείωση του κυτταροπλασματικού Smad7. Το Ski παρουσίασε σημαντική μείωση της έκφρασής του στις ΣΝ σε όλους τους τύπους σωληναρίων. Η σπειραματική έκφραση των pSmad2/3, p300 και του πυρηνικού Smad7 ήταν αυξημένη στις υπερπλαστικές ΣΝ και κυρίως τις δευτεροπαθείς. Η σωληναριακή έκφραση των pSmad2/3 και Smad7 και η εγγύς σωληναριακή των p300, Sp1 και του κυτταροπλασματικού Smad7 ήταν επίσης αυξημένες στις υπερπλαστικές ΣΝ. Αντίθετα, το Ski δεν παρουσίασε διαφορές στην έκφραση μεταξύ των υπερπλαστικών και μη υπερπλαστικών ΣΝ. Ακόμη, ανιχνεύθηκαν σημαντικές συσχετίσεις μεταξύ μεταξύ της έκφρσης των pSmad2/3, p300, Sp1 και Smad7 στο σπείραμα και τα εγγύς σωληνάρια. Η σπειραματική και εγγύς σωληναριακή έκφραση των pSmad2/3, Sp1 και η σπειραματική του πυρηνικού Smad7 έδειξαν να συσχετίζονται θετικά με τα επίπεδα της κρεατινίνης του ορού, ενώ η έκφραση αυτών και του p300 σε διαφόρους τύπους σωληναρίων εμφάνισαν θετική στσχέτιση με δείκτες ιστολογικής βλάβης. Τέλος η έκφραση όλων των μορίων (εκτός του Ski) ήταν συχνότατη στις στοιχειώδεις σπειραματικές βλάβες. Συμπερασματικά, το Smad σηματοδοτικό μονοπάτι φαίνεται να ενεργοποιείται στις ανθρώπινες ΣΝ. Μάλιστα, η ενεργοποίησή του αυτή πιθανώς συμβάλλει στην παθογένεση αλλά και την εξέλιξη της νεφρικής βλάβης. Μελλοντικές θεραπευτικές στρατηγικές που θα στοχεύουν στην αναστολή του μονοπατιού αυτού ίσως συμβάλλουν στην παρεμπόδιση της εξέλιξης και τη θεραπεία των ανθρωπίνων ΣΝ. / -

Les capacités de guérison humaine étant limitées et grandement associées à la fibrose, la possibilité de régénérer tous tissus contribueraient grandement à l’amélioration de la santé des patients. Dans le cadre de ce projet de doctorat, nous avons publié un article montrant les limitations de certains modèles de recherche en ce qui a trait à la guérison des plaies. Ces limitations sont d’autant plus importantes lorsque la recherche traite de régénération tissulaire. Aussi, cette publication positionne l’axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) comme un excellent modèle pour étudier le processus de régénération épimorphique ainsi que l’importance de la signalisation TGF-β. La cytokine multifonctionnelle TGF-β est impliquée dans la guérison, l’induction des cicatrices, la différenciation, la croissance et la migration cellulaire. Cette cytokine est responsable de la guérison quasi parfaite des muqueuses buccales chez les mammifères, mais est aussi liée à la cicatrisation de plusieurs autres types tissulaires. La famille des TGF-β est aussi impliquée dans la régénération épimorphique chez l’échinoderme, ainsi que dans la régénération hépatique (hyperplasie compensatoire), ce qui confirme son rôle régulateur de la guérison parfaite. Des travaux précédents ont montré que l’utilisation d’un inhibiteur spécifique de la signalisation des TGF-β (SB-431542) empêche la régénération (Lévesque et al., 2007). Comme la voie canonique de signalisation de TGF-β s’opère via les protéines Smads (Smad2 & 3), l’étude de ces deux protéines est au cœur du second article. Lors du processus de régénération, Smad2 est phosphorylé entre 6h et 48h post-amputation (pa), ce qui correspond à la phase de migration cellulaire et au début de la prolifération. D’un autre côté, Smad3 est phosphorylé plus tôt, entre 3h et 6h pa, alors que la quantité de protéine totale diminue lors de la phase de préparation. L’administration de l’inhibiteur SB-431542 au moment de l’amputation bloque l’activation de Smad2 et de Smad3. Aucun blastème ne se forme, bien que la plaie ferme normalement. L’utilisation des inhibiteurs SIS3 et Naringenin (spécifique à Smad3) réduisent la phosphorylation de Smad3 d’environ 50 % (lorsque mesurée par immunobuvardage). Le processus de régénération ne semble toutefois pas affecté. La régulation différentielle des Smads est donc centrale au processus de régénération de l’axolotl. Dans le cadre de ce projet, nous avons aussi tenté de bloquer spécifiquement l’expression, ainsi que l’activation de Smad2. J’ai premièrement établi que Smad2 et Smad3 étaient présents dans la lignée cellulaire AL-1 et qu’ils peuvent être phosphorylés. J’ai ensuite tenté, par différentes techniques, de réduire l’activation spécifique de Smad2, sans succès. D’autre part, plusieurs expériences complémentaires confirment que l’activation de Smad3 est difficilement détectable et est peu importante pour la formation du blastème. La capacité exceptionnelle de régénération de l’axolotl est intimement liée à une activation différentielle des protéines Smad2 et Smad3. L’activation de Smad2 est associée à une prolifération cellulaire importante. D’autre part, l’absence de fibrose est potentiellement due à la faible activation de Smad3 au cours du processus de régénération. / Since wound healing in human is imperfect and associated with fibrosis, understanding how regeneration works would be a great asset to improve patient’s health. During this PhD project, we have published a paper exposing the weaknesses of certain research models when studying wound healing. Those limitations are even more striking when studying regeneration. This publication sets the stage for the use of the axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) as an excellent model to study regeneration and the importance of TGF- for the process. The multifunctional cytokine TGF-β is involved in healing, scarring, cellular differentiation, growth and migration. This cytokine is associated with the near perfect healing of oral tissues in humans, but is also associated with scarring of multiple tissue types. TGF-β is also associated with epimorphic regeneration in echinoderm and liver hyperplasia. Previous work had shown that treatment of regenerating axolotl limbs with a specific inhibitor of TGF-β canonical signalling (SB-431542) prevents regeneration (Lévesque et al., 2007). Since canonical signaling goes through Smad2 and Smad3, those two proteins are at the center of the second publication. During limb regeneration, Smad2 is phosphorylated at 6h-48h post-amputation (pa), which corresponds to the cellular migration phase and the beginning of the proliferative phase. On the other hand, Smad3 phosphorylation happens earlier (3h-6h pa), while the total protein expression is lower. Treatment with SB-421543 blocks the phosphorylation of both Smad2 and Smad3. No blastema is formed, but the wound closes at the same rate. Treatment with other inhibitors, SIS3 or Naringenin (specifically targeting Smad3), blocks approximately 50% of Smad3 phosphorylation (as determined by western blotting), but regeneration is not affected. Differential regulation of Smads is essential for proper regeneration to occur. Lastly, we have tried multiple approaches to diminish specifically the activation of Smad2. Using the only axolotl cell line available (AL-1), we have tried inhibition with LNA molecules, long antisense and overexpression of a competitor. None of these approaches specifically reduced the levels of Smad2. In addition, other experiments confirmed that activation of Smad3 during the regeneration process is limited. The extraordinary ability to regenerate that the axolotl possesses is tightly linked to a differential activation of Smad2 and Smad3 proteins. Smad2 phosphorylation is associated with cellular proliferation and migration, hence blastema formation, while the apparent lack of Smad3 activity might partly explain why these animals do not form scar tissues.

Depending on the duration and severity, psychological tension and physical stress can enhance or suppress the immune system in both humans and animals. Although it has been established that chronic stress exerts a significant suppressive effect on immune function, the mechanisms by which affects immune responses remain elusive. By employing an in vivo murine system, we revealed that TGF-β1/Smad2/3/Foxp3 axis was remarkably activated following chronic stress. Furthermore, TLR9 and p38 MAPK played a critical role in the activation of TGF-β1/Smad2/3/Foxp3 signaling cascade. Moreover, inhibition of TGF-β1/Smad2/3/Foxp3 or p38 significantly attenuated chronic stress-induced lymphocyte apoptosis and apoptosis-related proteins, as well as the differentiation of T regulatory cells in spleen. Interestingly, disequilibrium of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines balance caused by chronic stress was also rescued by blocking TGF-β1/Smad2/3/Foxp3 axis. These findings yield insight into a novel mechanism by which chronic stress modulates immune functions and identifies new targets for the development of novel anti-immune suppressant medications.