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Namibia’s community based natural resource management program (CBNRM) integrates local participation in rural development and biodiversity conservation. This effort was launched through key legislation that devolved the right to manage wildlife and other renewable resources on communal lands from the state to community level conservancies. Local participation is dependent upon the capacity of the locals to self mobilize and establish conservancies, plan and implement their programs, and monitor and evaluate their progresses and impacts. Accordingly, this study examines the role of capacity development (CD) in CBNRM, particularly its processes, products, performance, and permanence at the individual, organizational (conservancy), and community levels. The research was carried out using interviews and participatory self-assessment exercises with various conservancy stakeholders. This study uncovers why and how capacity development has to be based on local realities and aspirations where capacity users need to have ownership of the process through partnerships with service providers in order to enhance endogenous capacity. However, such notion of “partnership” between CD stakeholders is challenging to translate into reality in the face of power imbalances, where government and NGOs are continuously influenced and coerced by donor interests, where NGOs are considered stronger than the government because they control more financial and human resources, and where conservancies tend to report upwards to NGOs and government instead of their constituents. Moreover, this research reiterates that CD has to be holistic enough to incorporate individual, organizational, and community level changes in order to create sustainable capacities and prevent problems of elitism, manipulation, and dependency on few individuals. With respect to CBNRM, the research argues that its basic premise of diversifying rural livelihoods using incentives to bring about sustainable resource management can only be achieved when conservancies have the capacity to create representative and participatory democratic processes, and when they are able to generate equitable and reliable tangible benefits with manageable costs to their constituents. As seen in this study, when such governance and benefit sharing structures are in place, they enhance local participation by promoting political empowerment, trust, ownership, and positive attitude towards living with wildlife. However, if such conditions are not met, local participation is reduced, while intra-community conflicts from marginalization to nepotism and members’ dissatisfaction and disinterest are inevitable.

Little is known about the strain and consequences of very prolonged and sustained exercise lasting multiple days. This thesis comprises two multi-day exercise field studies and a 24-h, controlled-trial field/laboratory study. The field studies were undertaken using international adventure races (2003 and 2004 Southern Traverses: 86-120 h) to profile exercise intensity and associated physiological and psychophysical strain, and physical and cognitive performance. The 2003 study showed that exercise intensity (from heart rate range) averaged 64% during the first 12 h, dropped to 41% by 24 h, and remained so thereafter. Body core temperature (gastrointestinal pills), throughout racing (n=8) was relatively stable (min 36.0�C and only briefly >39�C), despite widely varying endogenous and exogenous thermal stress. Blood samples obtained before (n=34), during (n=11) and after (n=34) racing revealed a large plasma volume expansion (24%), with stable [sodium]plasma (n=6). Acute (15-30 h) and chronic (96-120 h) elevation of neutrophil, monocyte and lymphocyte numbers were observed across the race. Standardised exercise tests (rest, 25 and 50% peak power output (PPO)) before and after racing (n=9) revealed an extreme shift toward fat utilisation, consistent with lowered fat mass (11%; n=44) and high [free fatty acids]plasma (up 370%; n=9) at race-finish, although [HAD]muscle was unchanged. Muscle glycogen was only 50% lower post-race (290 nmol�kg⁻�d.w.). Complex cognitive performance (Stroop test) impairment was attenuated during 50% PPO post-race. Perceived exertion uncoupled from HR at standardised workloads. Explosive power (jump test; n=24) and anaerobic power (30-s Wingate; n=27) were modestly (<10%) impacted. Strength reduction of arms (11%) and legs (17%) was equivalent (p=0.17). The 2004 study (n=4) involved dissimilar terrain, vegetation, and sequence of exercise modes, yet the profile of exercise intensity was similar: first 12 h 65%, then 45% by 24 h and thereafter. Thus, athletes reliably attain sustainable, low-to-moderate exercise intensity by 24 h. Plasma volume, neutrophil and monocyte responses were reliable across races, whereas lymphocytes were not. Plasma [IL-6] and [S100β] were elevated, substantially in some individuals (IL-6: 223 pg�mL⁻�; S100β: 113 pg�mL⁻�), during racing. A 24-h adventure race simulation (n=9) was then undertaken to investigate physiological and psychophysical factors influencing exercise intensity, autonomic function and orthostatic tolerance. Tests were at 0, ~7, ~15 and 24 h. The 24-h HR profile matched that observed during racing: first 12 h 58% (including 3-h testing), remainder 41%. The shift toward fat utilisation was almost complete within 7 h, and similar to that following 2003 race. The perceived exertion-to-HR uncoupling was also similar; being complete within 15 h. Plasma [noradrenaline] for rest and 12-km�h⁻� run was elevated post-simulation. Plasma [IL-6] peaked by 7 h, although not as high as field observations. The timeframe of metabolic change and perceived exertion uncoupling coincided with that of pace reduction, and may be important regulatory components of very prolonged exercise intensity. Orthostatic intolerance was evident during the simulation (n=6/9), as was cerebral hypo-perfusion (15 h & 24 h). Autonomic function (baroreflex sensitivity, sympathetic activation, parasympathetic withdrawal) was altered only at 7 h, whereas postural-induced hypotension (via impaired venous response) and hypocapnia were always present.

Coexisting species are interesting from evolutionary and ecological perspectives. Sympatry can provide insights into mechanisms that allow stable long-term coexistence, such as niche partitioning, character displacement, interspecific competition and species boundaries. In New Zealand streams, a flock of closely related non-migratory galaxiid fishes exist throughout eastern South Island (Galaxias vulgaris sensu lato). These fishes are largely parapatric, but recent studies have found streams that contain coexisting populations of two newly discovered galaxiids (Galaxias �southern� and G. gollumoides). In such streams there is a cline from allotopic (sections of streams containing predominantly one species) G. �southern� (lower altitudes) to allotopic G. gollumoides (higher altitudes), with a syntopic (both species) transition section. Such coexistence makes G. �southern� (yet to be formally described) and G. gollumoides ideal for examining the ecology and evolution of sympatric taxa. Very little is known about these two taxa. This thesis aims to detail the morphology, ecology and genetic differentiation between G. �southern� and G. gollumoides. These factors will be used to address separate species status and the possibility of interspecific competition. Data will also be used to examine resource and morphological shifts in either species between syntopy and allotopy, which maybe consistent with character displacement theory. All fish collected for analysis were first classified as G. �southern� or G. gollumoides by eye and by mtDNA. Morphological and ecological (habitat use and diet/isotope enrichment) differentiation between the two species were examined from three sympatric streams (streams containing allotopic and syntopic sites; representing three separate catchments) and four allopatric streams (streams containing only allotopic sites; representing two separate catchments). For sampling purposes, sympatric streams were subdivided into lower (allotopic G. �southern�), mid (syntopic) and upper (allotopic G. gollumoides) sections. We used this sampling regime to test for character displacement (i.e. ecological and morphological shifts between syntopy and allotopy). Diet, stable isotope, genetic structuring and hybridisation (amplified fragment length polymorphisms) were analysed from the three sympatric streams. Artificial stream channels were also used to observe the influence of interspecific competition on resource use over a complete diel cycle. G. �southern� and G. gollumoides were found to be morphologically distinct, differing significantly in 21 of 25 morphological measurements. The two species were also segregated ecologically with G. �southern� preferring shallower water, coarser substrate, and higher water velocity, feeding predominantly on mayflies (Ephemeroptera). In contrast, G. gollumoides preferred deeper water, finer substrate and lower water velocity, feeding predominantly on terrestrial invertebrates. Dietary segregation was also reflected by differences in [delta]�� Carbon and [delta]�⁵ Nitrogen enrichment. Morphological shifts consistent with character displacement were seen in overbite size and mouth size, but neither trait showed consistent statistical differences within and across streams. Ecological shifts were seen in distance to the nearest cover, with G. gollumoides being found further away from cover in syntopy and G. �southern� being found the same distance away from cover in syntopy and allotopy. In artificial stream channels, resource use of both species was not affected by the presence of a congener, but both species used faster water velocities during the night while remaining ecologically distinct. AFLP analysis revealed distinct genotypic clustering between these species with no F1 hybrids. Fine-scale genetic structuring was also observed within both species among streams, and among sites within streams. The minimal effect of a congener on resource use suggests that interspecific competition is not a strong force shaping sympatric populations of Southland galaxiids. This is also reflected by the lack of consistent morphological shifts between allopatry and sympatry. Similarly, character displacement does not seem to be a strong influencing G. �southern� and G. gollumoides. Diel cycles influenced niche expression in both fishes suggesting that abiotic factors may be important in structuring freshwater fish communities in Southland. The fine-scale genetic structuring within both species suggests limited conspecific genetic mixing and movement within streams, which possibly reflects drainage evolution. The absence of F1 hybrids suggests reproductive isolation between G. �southern� and G. gollumoides which may be associated with assortative mating. The present study provides evidence for the separate status of these sympatric fishes under several species concepts. There is conclusive evidence for morphological, ecological and genetic differentiation between sympatric G. �southern� and G. gollumoides, and such segregation maybe associated with long term coexistence in nature. Key words: coexistence, ecology, morphology, genetics, G. �southern�, G. gollumoides.

This study examines an existing postgraduate distance education program in project management in the setting of a regional university (University of Southern Queensland), and explores ways in which the program can be reconceptualised so that it aligns with validated pedagogical principles. By means of a comprehensive and in-depth analysis, the case study approach holistically explores the organisational context within which the program exists, the pedagogical frameworks by which the program is offered, and the educational setting within which students undertake their learning tasks and activities. Activity Theory has been used to undertake the study which has been guided by the question:What are the guiding principles for the development of a conceptual framework for postgraduate distance education in project management?The study progressively explores the contextual issues that influence postgraduate distance education for project management, the characteristics and circumstances of the learners, and the pedagogical frameworks, principles and practices guiding postgraduate distance education for project management in the case study setting. Data have been collected consistent with the principles of grounded theory through document analysis, semi-structured interviews, a web-based survey and focus group sessions. Data analysis has taken place iteratively with the findings from each stage guiding the collection and analysis of data in the subsequent stages. From the overall findings of the data analysis, key principles have been identified to guide future development of a conceptual framework for postgraduate project management distance education in the University.The findings from this study are embodied in a matrix of 9 key principles and 16 sub-principles, and recommendations flowing from those principles are summarised below: Distance education teaching and learning must be acknowledged as a core function of the University consistent with its vision, mission and values; Constructive alignment must be achieved across all administrative and academic functions of the University involved in the delivery of distance education; Postgraduate teaching and learning at a distance must be recognised as a discrete component of teaching and learning with specific characteristics and resource requirements; Administrative and academic policies, regulations and practices must incorporate genuine openness and flexibility as essential attributes of postgraduate distance education; Academic staff must be adequately trained and resourced to teach postgraduate programs at a distance; Administrative, teaching and learning practices should evolve from a student-centred learning community, driven by an understanding of the postgraduate distance education students in the project management programs, and their needs and objectives as lifelong learners; Relevant graduate attributes should be defined for postgraduate students in the project management programs, and learning tasks, activities and assessment should be structured towards development of those attributes; Postgraduate distance education students should engage in interactive and collaborative learning tasks and activities in order to attain high-level intellectual skills and abilities that are required for project management practice; Postgraduate distance education students should engage in situated learning, where tasks and activities take place in authentic project management contexts that respect students‘ individual learning settings and circumstances; Postgraduate programs in distance education should be structured with regard to curriculum and assessment to deliver learning outcomes that are endorsed by all stakeholders in the project management programs, both internal and external to the University.

A multi-decadal survey program undertaken at the Collaroy-Narrabeen embayment in SE Australia identifies medium-term (~2-7 year) cycles of both erosion and accretion across the entire embayment ('beach oscillation') and at its two extremities ('beach rotation'). These cycles have been observed to respond to phase shifts in the El Ni??o/Southern Oscillation (ENSO). To investigate wave and climate controls of embayment variability in finer detail, this study combines historical surveys with 45 years of wave data from the ERA-40 reanalysis and four years of high-resolution beach measurements using RTK-GPS and image-derived survey techniques. ENSO and Southern Annular Mode (SAM) controls of wave variability in the Sydney region are first explored. In general, wave heights increase/decrease and wave directions become more easterly/southerly during La Ni??a/El Ni??o phases. A positive correlation is observed between the SAM and summer wave heights, and a negative correlation between the SAM and winter wave directions. Storm variability is observed to be modified by the ENSO, but not the SAM. In particular, La Ni??a phases are generally associated with longer duration, higher energy events from a more easterly direction when compared to those during El Ni??o phases. Wave controls of embayment variability are subsequently investigated. In the short-term (days - months), beach oscillation/rotation is observed to be the most dominant process, accounting for approx. 60%/20% of overall embayment variability. Beach oscillation is related to changes in wave height and storms, whereas beach rotation is related to changes in wave direction and/or wave period. An empirical model that estimates the beach response to individual storm events is developed. In the longer-term (months - years), beach rotation is observed to respond to both wave heights and directions. Larger waves are sheltered somewhat at the southern end, creating an apparent clockwise rotation under energetic wave conditions. Clockwise/anticlockwise rotations are also observed to follow southerly/easterly wave shifts at lags of up to 12 months. Comparisons between the ENSO and beach oscillation/rotation agree with previous observations that El Ni??o/La Ni??a phases are associated with an overall accretion/erosion and clockwise/anticlockwise rotation of the embayment. In general, the SAM shows little influence on embayment variability. While it is clear that beach oscillation is driven by cross-shore processes, to what extent beach rotation is a longshore and/or cross-shore phenomena requires further investigation.

No description available.

No description available.

A multi-decadal survey program undertaken at the Collaroy-Narrabeen embayment in SE Australia identifies medium-term (~2-7 year) cycles of both erosion and accretion across the entire embayment ('beach oscillation') and at its two extremities ('beach rotation'). These cycles have been observed to respond to phase shifts in the El Ni??o/Southern Oscillation (ENSO). To investigate wave and climate controls of embayment variability in finer detail, this study combines historical surveys with 45 years of wave data from the ERA-40 reanalysis and four years of high-resolution beach measurements using RTK-GPS and image-derived survey techniques. ENSO and Southern Annular Mode (SAM) controls of wave variability in the Sydney region are first explored. In general, wave heights increase/decrease and wave directions become more easterly/southerly during La Ni??a/El Ni??o phases. A positive correlation is observed between the SAM and summer wave heights, and a negative correlation between the SAM and winter wave directions. Storm variability is observed to be modified by the ENSO, but not the SAM. In particular, La Ni??a phases are generally associated with longer duration, higher energy events from a more easterly direction when compared to those during El Ni??o phases. Wave controls of embayment variability are subsequently investigated. In the short-term (days - months), beach oscillation/rotation is observed to be the most dominant process, accounting for approx. 60%/20% of overall embayment variability. Beach oscillation is related to changes in wave height and storms, whereas beach rotation is related to changes in wave direction and/or wave period. An empirical model that estimates the beach response to individual storm events is developed. In the longer-term (months - years), beach rotation is observed to respond to both wave heights and directions. Larger waves are sheltered somewhat at the southern end, creating an apparent clockwise rotation under energetic wave conditions. Clockwise/anticlockwise rotations are also observed to follow southerly/easterly wave shifts at lags of up to 12 months. Comparisons between the ENSO and beach oscillation/rotation agree with previous observations that El Ni??o/La Ni??a phases are associated with an overall accretion/erosion and clockwise/anticlockwise rotation of the embayment. In general, the SAM shows little influence on embayment variability. While it is clear that beach oscillation is driven by cross-shore processes, to what extent beach rotation is a longshore and/or cross-shore phenomena requires further investigation.

[Abstract]: Universities have traditionally focused their efforts on recruiting new students and increasing participation rates. However, higher retention and progression rates of students are likely to have a beneficial effect on the overall performance of universities in terms of their student-based income. The majority of previous studies addressing student retention have largely been focused on younger undergraduate on-campus students therefore this research seeks to investigate the factors which affect the retention and progression of postgraduate business students undertaking their studies by distance education. This study is based on a qualitative exploratory research design comprising twenty semi-structured in-depth interviews conducted with current and former students and university staff members. The key findings of this study indicate that a combination of situational, institutional and dispositional factors impact upon the retention and progression of postgraduate business distance education students. The employment and family commitments of students, whether students believed that their studies would benefit their career goals and the design of the distance education program appear to be the most important factors impacting upon student retention and progression. In contrast to the majority of services marketing literature, it would appear that student satisfaction is not a key factor impacting upon student retention and progression in this context. This research also provides a range of managerial implications and recommendations for postgraduate distance education providers.