Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most important cereal crops grown in the world. It has great importance because it constitutes a major source of carbohydrate for more than one third of the world’s population (Budak et al., 2013). In the last three decades, drought conditions are becoming more widespread in wheat production areas including Europe, Australia and Asia, and it is considered a major cause of reduced wheat growth and productivity in most developing countries with semi-arid climates. Drought constitutes the most important threat for wheat production in Iraq and especially for the Kurdistan Regional Governate owing to the limited source of water during at least some part of the growing period. Because wheat is considered a staple food and has economic importance for the Kurdistan Regional Government research is needed to determine the production capacity of Iraqi wheat varieties under drought stress and the potential for the maximization of the drought tolerance response. The soil moisture holding capacity of the intended growing medium was measured gravimetrically in pots with and without wheat plants and correlated with the soil capacitance measured using a TDR Theta Probe (Delta-T Devices). This was used to determine the available water content of the soil (AWC) and to control and manage the watering regimes during drought studies. The results of a study of the response of different cultivars of Iraqi wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) to watering regimes of 70% and 50% showed that drought stress had a significant effect on the biomass and yield traits especially tiller number and stem bundle weight compared to normal conditions. The highest significant difference was observed for cv. Tamooz 2 in comparison to Adana 99, but there was a little difference between cvs. Rizgary and Sham 6. The effect of the exogenous application of salicylic acid (SA) and molybdenum (Mo) on drought tolerance of cvs. Tamooz 2 and Adana 99, showed that Tamooz 2 had higher values for growth characteristics and higher yield potential when sprayed with a lower concentration of SA (1.44 mM) under well-watered conditions in comparison with Adana 99. The effect of spraying variety Tamooz 2 with SA at different growth stages indicated that biomass production and yield components (the number of spikes/pot, grain dry weight and average 1000 grain dry weight) significantly increased at both stem+flower as well as leaf+stem+flower sprayings for plants subjected to drought. Also, SA treatments at stem extension and flowering had a positive effect on the up-regulation of the drought response gene CBF/DREB under drought stress conditions. These findings indicate that agronomic treatments with exogenous applications of salicylic acid and molybdenum could help to reduce the effects of drought in the field.

Salicylic acid (SA) is a key plant hormone that mediates host responses against microbial pathogens. Identification and characterization of SA-interacting/binding proteins is a topic which has always excited scientists studying microbial defense response in plants. It is likely that discovery of a true receptor for SA may greatly advance understanding of this important signaling pathway. SABP2 with its high affinity for SA was previously considered to be a SA receptor. Despite a great deal work we may still not have true a receptor for SA. It is also entirely possible that there may be more than one receptor for SA. This scenario is more likely given the diverse role of SA in various physiological processes in plants including, modulation of opening and closing of stomatal aperture, flowering, seedling germination, thermotolerance, photosynthesis, and drought tolerance. Recent identification of NPR3, NPR4 and NPR1 as potential SA receptors and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (KGDHE2), several glutathione S transferases (GSTF) such as SA binding proteins have generated more interest in this field. Some of these SA binding proteins may have direct/indirect role in plant processes other than pathogen defense signaling. Development and use of new techniques with higher specificity to identify SA-interacting proteins have shown great promise and have resulted in the identification of several new SA interactors. This review focuses on SA interaction/binding proteins identified so far and their likely role in mediating plant defenses.

Les plantes ne pouvant pas se déplacer sont continuellement soumises aux stress environnementaux. La blessure, l’un des stress les plus fréquents auxquels la plante est soumise, peut causer d’important dégâts et faciliter l’entrée de pathogène dans les tissus de la plante. Pour répondre efficacement à la blessure, la plante a développé des mécanismes lui permettant de guérir ses tissus endommagés et d’empêcher l’infection pathogène. Les stress environnementaux sont perçus grâce à la présence de récepteurs spécifiques activant des voies de signalisation qui, à terme, conduisent à la mise en place de réponses de défense. Les modules de MAPK, composés de 3 kinases (MAP3K, MAP2K et MAPK) activées en cascades, représentent d’importantes voies de signalisation impliquées en réponse à divers stress biotiques et abiotiques. Grâce aux approches de tests de phosphorylation in vitro très maîtrisées dans le groupe « Stress signaling », j’ai pu identifier un module MAPK impliquant la MAP2K MKK3 et les MAPKs du groupe C (MPK1, 2, 7 et 14) activé par la blessure. Les MAP3Ks du sous-clade III (MAP3K13 à 20) sont transcriptionnellement induites par divers stress ce qui semble être un mécanisme assez conservé. Certains membres du sous-clade III sont induits par la blessure et parmi eux la MAP3K14 semble avoir un rôle majeur en amont du module MKK3/MPK1-2-7-14. Enfin, j’ai pu montrer que l’acide jasmonique (JA), une phytohormone importante produite en réponse à la blessure, tient un rôle important en amont du module. Ce-dernier est également activé en réponse à l’insecte herbivore Spodoptera littoralis et au champignon nécrotrophe Botrytis cinerea. Dans le contexte de blessure par l’insecte herbivore, MKK3 semble réguler la production de deux phytohormones, le JA et l’Acide Salicylique (SA). / Plants are sessile organisms. They have to cope continuously with environmental stresses. Injury, one of the most frequent stress conditions that plants must face may cause harsh damages to the plant tissues and facilitate the entry of pathogens. Therefore, plants have evolved mechanisms to respond efficiently to wounding by healing damaged tissues and preventing further pathogen infection. Wounding is a complex stress which is perceived by specific receptors which activate signaling pathways leading to those responses. Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases modules are composed of 3 kinases (MAP3K, MAP2K and MAPK) activated in cascade and represent important signaling pathways involved in response to various biotic and abiotic stresses as well as in developmental processes. During my Ph.D I identified a MAPK module activated 30 minutes after wounding and involving the MAP2K MKK3 acting upstream of C-group MAPKs MPK1-2-7-14. In the past, the laboratory has shown that this module is dependent on the transcriptional regulation of sub-clade III MAP3Ks (MAP3K13 to 20). Some were found induced by wounding and among them MAP3K14 seems to have an important role upstream MKK3/C-group MAPKs. Finally I was able to show that Jasmonic Acid (JA), a major phytohormone produced upon wounding and involved in the mediation of defense responses, was shown to have an important role upstream the MKK3/C-group MAPKs module. The module is also activated by the herbivore Spodoptera littoralis and the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea. Upon insect feeding, MKK3 negatively regulates JA and SA levels. My work helped to better understand stress signaling events occurring upon wounding.

Salicylic acid (SA) is an important plant hormone with a wide range of effects on plant growth and metabolism. Plants lacking SA exhibit enhanced susceptibility to pathogens. SA plays important signaling roles in resistance against biotrophic and hemi- biotrophic phytopathogens. It is synthesized in plastids along two pathways, one involving phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) and the other isochorismate synthase (ICS). In Arabidopsis , during immune response most SA is synthesized through the ICS-dependent pathway, but clearly an ICS-independent pathway also exists. Several SA effector proteins have been identified and characterized which mediate downstream SA signaling. This includes SABP, a catalase, SABP2, a methyl salicylate esterase, SABP3, a carbonic anhydrase, NPR1 (nonexpressor of pathogenesis-related 1), NPR3 (a NPR1 paralog), and NPR4 (another NPR1 paralog). NPR3 and NPR4 regulate the turnover of NPR1, a process which plays a key role in activating defense gene expression. The role of SA in abiotic stress signaling is gradually becoming clearer. Various components of SA signaling in biotic stress also appear to impact abiotic stress signaling.