This thesis uses aspects of the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) to investigate how global trends and national eco-political factors in Botswana impact the livelihood strategies or actions of a group of individuals who identify as !Kung Group Basarwa in a small village called Ngwatle, located in the south western Kalahari. These global and national forces produce and reproduce institutions, structures and processes that constitute the particular vulnerability context in which Ngwatle is couched. The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, a key component of SLAs, is used here as a tool of analysis to identify barriers and constraints to livelihood aspirations. Basarwa, known as Bushmen or San people more generally, have a history of strained relationships with more powerful majority groups including the Setswana (or Tswana) who account for 79% of the population as well as wealthy cattle owning minority groups. This history, understood in a wider global context, makes livelihood construction extremely difficult for people living in Ngwatle. The research is exploratory in nature and seeks to contextualize a problem or a set of problems given a particular set of circumstances rather than establish categorical causality between variables. The approach of this research has been methodologically investigated by answering three primary research questions. The first question seeks to establish the major activities undertaken in Ngwatle households that help people in the community to make a living. In this regard, the research clearly establishes that several specific livelihood actions, such as making crafts and conducting cash-generating entrepreneurial activities are performed on a daily basis in Ngwatle. The second research question asks whether resources (assets) are constrained by institutions, structures and processes and if so, how. In fact, resources are constrained by these factors and are informed by historical precedence. The third research question focuses on how institutions, structures and processes impact livelihood strategies in Ngwatle in more detail. Links are established between the macro (global), meso (national) and micro (community) economic and political environments. The suggestion is that aspects of capitalism and neo-liberalism at the global and State levels have informed and strengthened various mechanism of control designed to manipulate and direct the movement of individuals (bio-politics). In essence prejudices and discriminatory practices have served to radically alter Basarwa social systems and seriously undermine livelihood strategies. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

In most developing countries the characteristics of the poor go beyond the traditional definition of poverty. Whilst the latter broadly refers to lack of access to material resources, there are other factors that are linked to poverty. This thesis identifies one of these factors as social exclusion which is suggested as a barrier to poverty reduction efforts. Drawing from the experience on the concept of social exclusion as developed in the north, and extended to some countries in the south, the social exclusion framework is applied within the context of a country in the south, namely Botswana. The thesis investigates the operation of social exclusion within the Basarwa minority group in the country, by identifying the appropriate mechanisms that drive social exclusion, describing the processes of exclusion, and delineating its characteristics. This is done within the context oftesting the proposition that social exclusion is one of the factors linked to the persistence of poverty. Noting that persistence of poverty is conventionally attributed, among others things, to shortfall in education and skills, lack of opportunities and capital or land, the thesis investigates the root causes ofthese factors in as far as Basarwa are concerned. It is argued that such shortfalls and failure to obtain adequate resources are due to exclusionary processes operating at two levels. The major findings are that the concept is multidimensional and that the target group faces exclusion in political, socio-cultural, economic, spatial and legal terms. This exclusion operates at the national and local levels. Owing to this multiple exclusion, Basarwa generally face difficulties in escaping poverty, with the older generation being the most affected. Social exclusion is a barrier to poverty reduction because it makes it difficult for the Basarwa to obtain equal and satisfactory access to opportunities, assets, and resources available in political, economic and social fields of society. The thesis offers some policy suggestions about how to reduce social exclusion. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

mnesty International (2009:1) reports that despite some progress over the last decade, indigenous peoples around the world continue to live in hardship and danger. This is due to the failure of states to uphold their fundamental human rights. The persecution of minorities by intolerant majorities is still a major cause of international unrest in various parts of the world (Sohn, 1981: 272). Against this backdrop, this study set out to investigate the extent to which the rights of the Basarwa in Botswana are promoted and protected by the government. Methods of data collection included questionnaire, interviews, books, journal articles and internet publications. The study found out that the government of Botswana does not promote and protect the rights of the Basarwa in Botswana. They are instead being considered as a primitive and backward people and hence, a developmental problem by the government of Botswana. Other violations of their rights include: non-recognition as the indigenous people of Botswana, derogatory names-calling, forced land evictions and other forms of social and economic exclusion. The study recommends the following: The need for the government of Botswana to recognise the Basarwa as a distinct and unique ethnic group in the country; the need for dialogue between the Basarwa, the government of Botswana and NGOs; the need for the government of Botswana to ameliorate the quality and accessibility of social services for the Basarwa, particularly in the areas of health and education; and the need for both the public and private sectors alike to provide the necessary skills for employment of the Basarwa.

This thesis looks into the land use and natural resource management systems of Basarwa communities in Ngamiland in the northwest of Botswana. The study specifically focuses on Basarwa communities living in and on the edges of the Okavango Delta. The link between these communities and their natural resources is explored using the Sustainable Rural Livelihoods Framework and the Adaptive Renewal Cycle. The core assumption in this thesis is that livelihood strategies are constantly renewed and adapted to promote resilience in ecological and social systems. Fieldwork data collected between May 2000 and July 2001 and secondary data is used to deliberate on this point. The thesis confirms that the Basarwa’s livelihood strategies were adaptive only in as far as traditional livelihoods are concerned. The thesis traces the changes that the Basarwa have experienced as a result of policy restrictions through the different phases of the adaptive renewal cycle. The period following Independence in Botswana saw a policy shift which resulted in the Basarwa becoming landless. With mainly land-based livelihood strategies, the Basarwa were faced with new forms of crises and vulnerability which their traditional adaptive strategies were not designed for. It comes to the conclusion that the Basarwa are currently stuck in a reorganisation phase; however, the CBNRM Draft Policy of Botswana offers a glimpse of hope as it provides an opportunity for the Basarwa to progress through the full cycle of reorganisation, renewal, conservation and release.

The objective of this thesis is to examine the need for people and communities to develop liquid assets through a savings programme and to work productively with these savings. It had to be taken into consideration that at least some members of the population could be considered non-monetary in their orientation. In order to achieve this objective a participatory and culturally sensitive micro-finance programme was designed through an Action Research methodology. By combining mainly quantitative baseline information, detailed and more qualitative work with some of the participants and routine output from the programme activities, the study aimed to arrive at concrete conclusions concerning the way a micro-finance programme has worked in San conununities and make recommendations regarding its future. lt was found that the programme has made at least some of the participants more conversant with the handling of cash and also contributed to increased self-respect. Developing liquid assets was most difficult for the poorest participants and the majority of these poorest are women. The San people are the poorest; even among other marginal rural minorities and should receive special assistance. The programme was moderately successful in helping participants to save towards larger needs and to even out income flows. It could not be established whether the programme could make a contribution to the development of long~term assets. Initiatives to establish microenterprises with the capital met with only limited success. The programme was not successful in establishing a savings programme as an alternative to cattle farming and should rather be seen as a complementary strategy for increasing household assets. It was found that the emphasis on savings mobilisation, rather than the creation of debt through credit was valid. Increased incomes will lead to increased indebtedness. A higher influx of cash in a San community is likely to be unevenly spread and is also likely to increase the gap between the wealthier and poorer community members. It was concluded that projects that meet basic and immediate needs such as food, shelter and housing, should be integrated with programmes that address larger needs such as loss of culture and land. A process of empowerment cannot be supported when rural poverty is not addressed. / Development Studies / D.Litt. et Phil. (Development Administration)

The objective of this thesis is to examine the need for people and communities to develop liquid assets through a savings programme and to work productively with these savings. It had to be taken into consideration that at least some members of the population could be considered non-monetary in their orientation. In order to achieve this objective a participatory and culturally sensitive micro-finance programme was designed through an Action Research methodology. By combining mainly quantitative baseline information, detailed and more qualitative work with some of the participants and routine output from the programme activities, the study aimed to arrive at concrete conclusions concerning the way a micro-finance programme has worked in San communities and make recommendations regarding its future. It was found that the programme has made at least some of the participants more conversant with the handling of cash and also contributed to increased self-respect. Developing liquid assets was most difficult for the poorest participants and the majority of these poorest are women. The San people are the poorest, even among other marginal rural minorities and should receive special assistance. The programme was moderately successful in helping participants to save towards larger needs and to even out income flows. It could not be established whether the programme could make a contribution to the development of long-term assets. Initiatives to establish microenterprises with the capital met with only limited success. The programme was not successful in establishing a savings programme as an alternative to cattle farming and should rather be seen as a complementary strategy for increasing household assets. It was found that the emphasis on savings mobilisation, rather than the creation of debt through credit was valid. Increased incomes will lead to increased indebtedness. A higher influx of cash in a San community is likely to be unevenly spread and is also likely to increase the gap between the wealthier and poorer community members. It was concluded that projects that meet basic and immediate needs such as food, shelter and housing, should be integrated with programmes that address larger needs such as loss of culture and land. A process of empowerment cannot be supported when rural poverty is not addressed. / Public Administration / D. Litt. et Phil. (Development Administration)

The objective of this thesis is to examine the need for people and communities to develop liquid assets through a savings programme and to work productively with these savings. It had to be taken into consideration that at least some members of the population could be considered non-monetary in their orientation. In order to achieve this objective a participatory and culturally sensitive micro-finance programme was designed through an Action Research methodology. By combining mainly quantitative baseline information, detailed and more qualitative work with some of the participants and routine output from the programme activities, the study aimed to arrive at concrete conclusions concerning the way a micro-finance programme has worked in San conununities and make recommendations regarding its future. lt was found that the programme has made at least some of the participants more conversant with the handling of cash and also contributed to increased self-respect. Developing liquid assets was most difficult for the poorest participants and the majority of these poorest are women. The San people are the poorest; even among other marginal rural minorities and should receive special assistance. The programme was moderately successful in helping participants to save towards larger needs and to even out income flows. It could not be established whether the programme could make a contribution to the development of long~term assets. Initiatives to establish microenterprises with the capital met with only limited success. The programme was not successful in establishing a savings programme as an alternative to cattle farming and should rather be seen as a complementary strategy for increasing household assets. It was found that the emphasis on savings mobilisation, rather than the creation of debt through credit was valid. Increased incomes will lead to increased indebtedness. A higher influx of cash in a San community is likely to be unevenly spread and is also likely to increase the gap between the wealthier and poorer community members. It was concluded that projects that meet basic and immediate needs such as food, shelter and housing, should be integrated with programmes that address larger needs such as loss of culture and land. A process of empowerment cannot be supported when rural poverty is not addressed. / Development Studies / D.Litt. et Phil. (Development Administration)