There is conclusive evidence that regular physical activity produces both physical and psychological benefits. People engaged in sedentary work who avoid physical activity, or have physical or psychological obstacles to being physically active, forgo the substantial benefits that being physically active provides. In Australia, many middle-aged women (45 to 59 years) are especially at risk of ill-health due to their physically inactive lifestyles. In this dissertation, I report on a mixed-method research approach that incorporated the LIFE: Live It Up (LLIU) intervention. Adopting a multi-theoretical perspective I drew on strategies from Transtheoretical Model, Social Cognitive Theory, the Theory of Planned Behaviour, and Self-Determination Theory. In the first study, participants (71, sedentary, mid-life women) were assigned to either an adoption (3-hour workshop), maintenance (3-hour workshop plus extra maintenance session at 9 months) or control (usual activity) condition. Physical activity levels, psychological well-being, and moods were assessed (pre, post and at 4, 40 & 44 weeks) using the Scottish Physical Activity Questionnaire (SPAQ); the Medical Outcome Survey (MOS) Short Form, (SF36); and the Positive and Negative Affect Scale, (PANAS). Motivational messages (Treatment condition participants only) and reflective journals (all participants) tailored to conditions were delivered to participants across the intervention year. Quantitative analyses for the LLIU intervention study involved a series of Analyses of Variance (ANOVA). High attrition, however, across conditions resulted in only 27 participants remaining in the study at 52 weeks. No significant differences were from applying ANOVA to the SPAQ data for physical activity levels. Applying ANOVA to the vitality (SF-36 subscale) gain score data (SF-36) there was evidence of significant gains in vitality at 4 and 44 weeks for the treatment condition (TC) participants compared to the control condition. Feelings and emotions (mood) were measured with the PANAS (see appendix C). Applying ANOVA revealed positive affect was stable across the intervention for TC participants. Negative affect, however, was lowered at 52 weeks for TC participants. I interpreted all results cautiously, because of high attrition rates, particularly in the control condition, and a consequent loss in statistical power. Quantitative analyses for the LLIU intervention study involved a series of Analyses of Variance (ANOVA). High attrition, however, across conditions resulted in only 27 participants remaining in the study at 52 weeks. No significant differences were indicated from results of applying ANOVA to the SPAQ data for physical activity levels. Vitality, a construct assessing energy level and fatigue, was examined and applying ANOVA to the vitality (SF-36 subscale) gain score data (SF-36) showed evidence of significant gains in vitality at 4 and 44 weeks for the treatment condition (TC) participants compared to the control condition. Feelings and emotions were measured with the PANAS (see appendix C). Applying ANOVA revealed positive affect was stable across the intervention for TC participants. Negative affect, however, was lowered at 52 weeks for TC participants. I interpreted all results cautiously, because of high attrition rates, particularly in the control condition, and a consequent loss in statistical power. Qualitative analysis of the ejournals indicated that participation in the LLIU and elements of the ejournal were motivational for physical activity response. TC participants’ reported being encouraged through the workshops to focus on physical activity. Encouragement was associated with social aspects of the workshop, enjoyment, and the kind of information provided. In addition, TC participants reported that lack of time, family demands, and energy depletion were considerable obstacles to physical activity participation. In the second study, I conducted follow-up interviews with 11 of the intervention participants, between one and four months after their LLIU involvement ended. Using thematic content analysis I identified six themes expressed by the women within the treatment conditions. These were (i) commitment; (ii) change driving forces; (iii) positivity, “licence” to change, and guilt reduction; (iv) elements of choice, control, and capacity to follow through; (v) self-efficacy expectations; and (vi) social support issues. For instance, commitment involved participants in taking specific steps toward action and generated freedom from procrastination; change driving forces were internal and external with enjoyment greatly enhancing physical activity experiences; positivity led to a sense of licence to change, followed by guilt reduction. An additional three case studies drilled down into issues that mid-life women typically face when attempting physical activity change. Findings highlighted the frustration associated with wanting to change, being caught in an attempt-fail cycle, and being assigned to control condition; how change can happen (adoption condition) even when family values are highly prioritised and illustrated how the confidence gained through the LLIU developed sustainable efficacy for exercise (maintenance condition). Identification of “double benefits” such as engaging in physical activity while encouraging children to be active can be motivational for sustainable physical activity. Guilt metaphorically paralysed physical activity changes. Strategic thinking assisted with recycling through stages of change. Autonomous behaviour change in control participants who remained in the study raised key questions for future studies. In addition, my studies added to the evidence base that intervention research with sedentary participants requires additional strategies (e.g., overrecruitment, extra attention) to ensure sustained engagement. In conclusion, high attrition in the first study reduced the veracity of quantitative evidence for the effectiveness of multi-theory approaches for increasing physical activity. Findings reported for the second study have considerably expanded the evidence base concerning the debilitating effects of guilt and the usefulness of strategic thinking on motivation for physical activity. In addition, this study represents additional evidence for motivation for physical activity change being strengthened through workshops and reflective journals. Longitudinal research is especially difficult with sedentary cohorts especially in the context of recruiting and maintaining participant samples.

The types of kick that are performed in the football codes fall into two broad categories: punt kick and place kick. One type of punt kick is the major means of ball movement in Australian Rules football – the drop punt kick. Past studies have investigated the biomechanics of kicking. The pattern of segmental interaction during the kicking motion – known as the proximal to distal sequence (PDS) – is the most consistent finding that is reported in the biomechanics of kicking literature. In this sequence the proximal segment (thigh) initiates the forward swing of the kicking limb towards the ball and the forward rotation of the distal segment (shank) follows. PDS motions are also typified by a higher angular velocity of the distal segment (shank). Studies that have compared the difference between skilled and less skilled kickers in Australian Rules football have found that the difference in performance is the result of 1) the position of the shank at the end of the backswing is higher above horizontal (further in the clockwise direction) for the skilled than it is for the less skilled, 2) the maximum angular velocity of the thigh during the forward swing is greater for the skilled than it is for the less skilled and 3) the skilled kickers demonstrate greater mean maximum angular velocity of the shank at foot – ball contact. Apart from these findings there is inadequate information about the mechanical features of a skillful drop punt kick. The objective of this study was to quantify and compare the kinematics of skilled and less skilled kicking. A general profile of the drop punt kick and the reliability of the kinematic variables were also reported. The reliability study was conducted first. Six subjects were tested on two occasions to establish the reliability of the equipment and methods. Variables were deemed to be reliable if they demonstrated an ICC equal or greater than r = 0.80. Of the 95 variables that were analysed 42% had an ICC greater than r = 0.79 and 25% were classified as having questionable to moderate reliability because r = 0.50 – 0.79. Only reliable variables were used to compare the skilled and less skilled groups. Six elite skilled kickers and six elite less skilled kickers were used in the main study. All subjects used were AFL players at the time of the data collection. Two-dimensional video footage was taken of each kick using a high speed camera (200Hz). The camera was positioned so that its line of sight was perpendicular to the sagittal plane of motion. The video footage of each trial was processed through the Peak Motus motion analysis system. The start of the kicking motion was identified by the maximum cw angle of the thigh. The time of foot – ball contact was the end of the motion. There were two phases that were identified during this time; transition and forward swing. The duration of each was 50% of movement time. The results of the current study showed that the skilled kickers held the ankle in a more plantarflexed position than did the less skilled kickers (skilled 46.7 degrees, less skilled 39.21 degrees, r = 0.70, ES = – 1.06, p = .071) at the time of foot – ball contact. This result indicates that a common trait amongst skilled kickers is the presence of a taut instep at foot – ball contact. This is one trait of skilled kickers that is often referred to by skills coaches within the AFL. The maximum angular velocity of the shank (1402 degrees/second) was higher than that of the thigh (805 degrees/second). The mean knee extension angle at foot – ball contact was 50 degrees and the maximum knee extension angle occurred after foot – ball contact (150% movement time). There was no difference between groups in the magnitude of the angles or angular velocities (p &gt 0.2). There was a difference in the time between the maximum angular velocity of the thigh and the maximum angular velocity of the shank (p &lt 0.05). From this result we suggested that skilled kickers are distinguished from less skilled kickers based on the timing of the critical events not the magnitude of critical events.

There were three broad aims for this thesis. These included (1) an investigation of the relationships between the intensity and directional dimensions of trait anxiety, state anxiety and performance in sport, (2) a detailed exploration of mechanisms mediating observed relationships, using the theory of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) as a framework, and (3), based on the findings of this exploration, an assessment of the efficacy of a tailored REBT treatment as a means of modifying harmful trait anxiety directional interpretations, resulting in changes at the state level and ultimately changes in performance. A total of 189 competitors from the sports of freestyle skiing, athletics, and ten-pin bowling participated in Study 1. Each competitor provided general demographic information, information pertaining to their overall skill level, and also completed the Competitive Trait Anxiety Inventory version 2 – directional (CTAI-2-D), Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS), and Competitive State Anxiety Inventory version 2 – directional (CSAI-2-D) just prior to a competition. Following competition they went on to rate their performance on a scale from very poor to excellent. The results of Study 1 revealed that measures of anxiety correlated as predicted, and provided further support to the utility of directional measures of anxiety as a more precise predictor of skill level and performance than intensity alone measures. In Study 2, six bowlers who obtained negative directional trait anxiety scores on both of the cognitive and somatic subscales of the CTAI-2-D, and six bowlers who obtained positive directional trait anxiety scores on both of the cognitive and somatic subscales of the CTAI-2-D were interviewed on two separate occasions. Interviews were designed to assess the presence and typology of cognitions associated with emotional responses based on the ABC framework adopted in the theory and practice of REBT. Findings from Study 2 provided insight into specific cognitive mechanisms behind directional measures of anxiety, and highlighted the value of REBT as a theoretical model for conceptualising various components of anxiety in sport. In particular, competitors with debilitative interpretive styles were found to endorse self-directed demands, and awfulising, and exhibited secondary emotional disturbance most frequently associated with somatic and behavioural interpretations. In the final study, a total of 60 ten-pin bowlers were allocated to either a six-week course of REBT, a six-week course of a more traditional treatment entailing imagery and relaxation, or a control condition entailing six weeks of befriending. REBT was found to significantly moderate negative directional interpretation scores of anxiety symptoms, and to reduce competitors’ endorsement of irrational beliefs (whilst concurrently increasing their endorsement of rational or non-judgemental thinking styles) to a greater extent than the traditional intervention (relaxation and mental imagery), and control condition. Further, although not statistically significant, competitors who underwent the course of REBT showed greater performance gains than the bowlers in the other two conditions. The main implications of these findings are that anxiety research and management practices should focus on the causal role of underlying beliefs, and the relationship competitors have with these beliefs, in the experience of anxiety. Further, the results of this study highlighted that REBT has a significant role to play in the theory and management of anxiety in sport.

Many studies have considered the effect of training techniques (especially plyometric) on jump height. However, previous research has not considered the optimum surface for these training techniques. The aim of this research was to determine which training and/or playing surface is most beneficial in maximising vertical jump height for volleyball players. Attainment of such knowledge will not only assist athletes in optimising results but also help coaches in developing training. Conclusions. It is reasonable to suggest that sand training and playing surface had a greater effect on increasing vertical jump height on both surfaces. This minor thesis was written by a post graduate student as part of the requirements of the Master of Health Science (Osteopathy) program.

This study investigated the injuries sustained by elite Australian sport aerobic athletes in the 12 months prior to the FISAF world's sport aerobics championships in May/June 2004. Data was collected using a retrospective questionnaire developed from published research in similar areas. This study is important in establishing the prevalence and rate of injury in elite sport aerobic athletes and provides a basis for further research. This minor thesis was written by a post graduate student as part of the requirements of the Master of Health Science (Osteopathy) program.

A prospective study was performed in order to examine the relationship of internal hip rotation to groin pain in Australian Rules Football players. 101 subjects were tested using a plurimeter placed on the lateral aspect of the tibia whilst lying prone on a plinth. Subjects were tested twice at an interval of six weeks and episodes of groin pain that occurred between the first and second testing dates were recorded. This study may have implications for the treatment and prevention of groin injuries in the athletic population and in particular Australian Rules Football players. This minor thesis was written by post-graduate students as part of the requirements of the Master of Health Science (Osteopathy) program.

Background and objectives: Current research on respiratory diseases is mainly focused on the effects of drug treatments, however much less work has looked into the use of manual treatments of patients with symptoms of respiratory dysfunction. Studies currently being conducted through Victoria University are attempting to investigate whether manual treatments, such as HVLA and Lymphatic Pump techniques have an effect on lung function. There has however been no research into the effect of Muscle Energy Technique (MET) on measurable respiratory function even though it is such a widely used technique. This study aims to identify whether MET leads to a measurable change in ventilatory function in asymptomatic individuals. Conclusion: Thoracic MET performed on asymptomatic volunteers had no significant effect on FVC or FEV measurements immediately post, 10 minutes post or 20 minutes post-intervention. This minor thesis was written by post-graduate students as part of the requirements of the Master of Health Science (Osteopathy) program.

Background: Edge Light Pupil Cycle Time (ELPCT) is a light reflex of the eye, which is controlled via the automatic nervous system. Studies have shown ELPCT to be a measurable constant, unaffected by visual acuity, refractive error, eye colour, pupil size or gender. Recent studies have shown that high-velocity manipulation of the upper cervical spine causes an immediate decrease in ELPCT on the same side as the manipulation. This change is presumed to me mediated in part by alterations in the autonomic tone following mauipulative intervention, therefore suggesting that unilateral manipulation produces an immdeiate unilateral change in the autonomic nervous system. Objective: To investigate the lasting effects (up to 1 hour) of C1-2 high velocity low amplitude manipulation upon ELPCT. Design: A two group blind, randomized study, with a control group. Conclusion: This suggests that ELPCT, which is mediated by the autonomic nervous system, can be directly influenced by high-velocity manipulation to the atlanto-axial joint and these changes occur on the same side as the manipulation (i.e. unilateral manipulation produces unilateral physiological change). Over a one-hour time frame these changes are still significant at 20-minutes post-manipulation but only slightly evident at one-hour post manipulation. This minor thesis was written by a post-graduate student as part of the requirements of the Master of Health Science (Osteopathy) program.

Background: High velocity low amplitude (HVLA) thrust techniques are commonly used by manual therapists. One of the primary goals of these techniques is to increase the range of motion within spinal segments. Still, there is much contention about the outcomes of the audible release or cavitation associated with these techniques. This study is to investigate the effect that HVLA thrust techniques has on total cervical ROM asymmetries with and without cavitation. Conclusion: HVLA thrust technique to the AA joint with cavitation produced a significant amelioration in total cervical rotation asymmetry immediately post-manipulation. A significant amelioration in toal cervical rotation asymmetries was not found when HVLA failed to produce a cavitation. The reduction in the asymmetry immediately post-manipulation had reduced or returned to the pre-manipulation level at 30 minutes post-manipulation. This minor thesis was written by a post-graduate student as part of the requirements of the Master of Health Science (Osteopathy) program.

Background and objectives: People with psoriatic arthritis seek complementary medical treatment, such as osteopathy, as a sole form of treatment, or as a complement to conventional treatment. The aim of this case series design was to determine the effects of osteopathic treatment on the symptoms, and health related quality of life (HRQOL) in people with psoriatic arthritis. The results demonstrate that osteopathic treatments are capable of producing symptomatic relief and improvements in HRQOL. The limited number of participants in the study limits generalization of the findings, but gives impetus to further research in this area. This minor thesis was written by post-graduate students as part of the requirements of the Master of Health Science (Osteopathy) program.