Grain assemblages in organic-rich mudrocks of the Eagle Ford Formation of South Texas are assessed to determine the relative contributions of intra- and extrabasinal sediment sources, with the ultimate goal of producing data of relevance to prediction of diagenetic pathways. Integrated light microscopy, BSE imaging, and X-ray mapping reveal a mixed grain assemblage of calcareous allochems, biosiliceous grains (radiolaria), quartz, feldspar, lithics, and clay minerals. Dominant fossils are pelagic and benthic foraminifers and thin-walled and prismatic mollusks; echinoderms, calcispheres, and oysters are present. Early-formed authigenic minerals, including calcite, kaolinite, dolomite, albite, pyrite, quartz, and Ca-phosphate, some reworked, add to the overall lithologic heterogeneity. Point counting of images produced using energy-dispersive X-ray mapping in the SEM provides observations at a scale appropriate to classifying the mudrocks based on the composition of the grain assemblage, although grains and other crystals of clay-size cannot be fully characterized even with the SEM. Each sample is plotted on a triangle, whose vertices correspond to terrigenous and volcanic grains (extrabasinal components), calcareous allochems, and biosiliceous grains. As a subequal mix of grains of intrabasinal and extrabasinal origins the detrital grain assemblage of the Eagle Ford, presents a formidable challenge to the task of lithologic classification of this unit, as neither conventional limestone nor sandstone classifications can be readily applied. The abundant marine skeletal debris in the Eagle Ford is accompanied by abundant calcite cementation and the dissolution and replacement of biosiliceous debris is accompanied by authigenic quartz, suggesting that mudrock grain classification has potential for yielding diagenetic predictions. / text

L'érosion hydrique touche près de 3 millions d'hectares des sols agricoles en Tunisie, et constitue une menace pour la durabilité des retenues collinaires destinées à mobiliser les eaux de surface. La très forte densité des systèmes ravinaires en Tunisie, comme dans bon nombre de régions méditerranéennes, pose la question de leur rôle dans le comblement des retenues. Dans ce contexte, l'objectif général de ce travail de thèse est de proposer une méthodologie qui permette d'évaluer la contribution relative de l'érosion ravinaire (ravines/oued) et de l'érosion de surface (diffuse/ rigoles) dans les flux de sédiments à l'exutoire des petits bassins versants (0,1-10 km²) sur des périodes d'observations suffisamment longues (une quinzaine d'année). La démarche proposée s'appuie sur la méthode de traçage des sources de sédiments développée par Walling (1999), et consiste à exploiter le caractère stable de certains éléments pour discriminer les sources de sédiments accumulés dans les retenues collinaires. Les différentes étapes de cette approche consistent en : i) l'identification des traceurs potentiels; ii) l'analyse de ces traceurs dans les échantillons «source» et dans les carottes prélevées dans les sédiments de la retenue; iii) l'application d‘un modèle de mélange associé à un modèle de Monte Carlo. Les résultats de cette méthode de traçage testée prioritairement sur un bassin versant expérimental (Kamech) ont été par la suite validés par deux approches indépendantes d'estimation des volumes de terres érodés. Sur Kamech, les résultats montrent la prédominance de l'érosion de surface qui représente près de 80% de l'érosion totale dont le taux moyen atteint 15 t/ha/an. Cette application a également permis de dégager des recommandations concernant la stratégie d'échantillonnage des carottes au sein des sédiments piégés dans les retenues collinaires pour limiter les incertitudes liées à l'échantillonnage. La méthode a ensuite été appliquée à quatre autres bassins versants choisis pour représenter au mieux la diversité des paysages de la Dorsale Tunisienne et du Cap Bon. La comparaison des résultats pour les cinq bassins versants étudiés montre une large variabilité des comportements érosifs : trois bassins montrent une prédominance de l'érosion de surface et nécessitent la mise en place de pratiques culturales protectrices de la ressource en sol alors que les deux autres bassins sont dominés par l'érosion ravinaire et nécessitent de recourir prioritairement à des mesures structurelles telles que des aménagements de ravines. Ces différences de comportements érosifs entre bassins ont été confrontées aux caractéristiques des sites en vue de fournir des clés de prédiction.Mots clefs : Erosion ravinaire. Erosion de surface. Bassins versants. Retenues collinaires. Traçage des sources de sédiments. Télédétection. Tunisie. / Water erosion affects nearly 3 million hectares of agricultural soil in Tunisia, and presents a threat to the sustainability of reservoirs to store surface waters. The high density of gully systems in Tunisia, like in many Mediterranean regions, raises the question of their role in the siltation of reservoirs. In this context, the objective of this thesis is to propose a methodology for evaluating the relative contribution of gully erosion (gullies/channel) compared to surface erosion (rill and interrill) in sediment fluxes at the outlet of small catchments (0.1-10 km ²), for pluri-annual periods (about 15 years). The proposed approach is based on the method of fingerprinting sediment sources developed by Walling et al. (1999), and takes advantage of the stable nature of certain elements to discriminate the origin of sediment trapped in reservoirs. The different steps of this approach consist in i) the identification of potential tracers adapted to the objectives of the study, ii) the quantification of these tracers in sources samples and in sediment cores, iii) the application of a mixing model combined with a Monte Carlo model. The results of this fingerprinting approach primarily tested on the Kamech experimental catchment were subsequently validated using eroded soil volumes estimated by two independent approaches. The results for this catchment show the dominance of surface erosion which represents nearly 80% of the 15 t/ha/year of total erosion. In addition, guidelines for method application have been proposed, including the implementation of a core sampling strategy which limits the level of uncertainty to less than 10%. The method was then applied to four other catchments representative of the diversity of the Tunisian Dorsal and Cape Bon landscapes. The comparison of the results for the five studied catchments shows a wide variability of erosion behaviour. Surface erosion is the dominant process in three catchments which require the establishment of protective cultivation of the soil resource. The two other catchments are dominated by gully erosion and require the priority use of structural measures such as improvements of gullies and bank channel protection. These differences between catchments have been related to the characteristics of the sites in order to identify predictive factors.Keywords: Gully Erosion. Rill and Interrill Erosion. Catchments. Reservoirs. Sediment Fingerprinting. Remote Sensing. Tunisia.

Este trabalho refere-se à variabilidade da origem dos sedimentos transportados durante eventos de chuva-vazão em uma pequena bacia hidrográfica rural (1,19 Km2). Esta bacia está localizada no sul do Brasil e a área é caracterizada pela presença de agricultores familiares que principalmente cultivam fumo em áreas consideradas inaptas para atividades agrícolas, de acordo com o sistema de aptidão agrícola do solo. Isto ocasiona severas perdas de solo por erosão hídrica. Neste estudo foram utilizadas técnicas hidrossedimentométricas com análises estatísticas multivariadas para determinação da procedência dos sedimentos durante a subida e a descida da onda de cheia em eventos de precipitação variada. A metodologia utilizada é denominada “método Fingerprinting” e possibilita avaliar quais são as áreas contribuintes para a produção de sedimentos intra-eventos de chuva-vazão. Foram definidas três áreas com potencial para produção de sedimentos, sendo as fontes, o canal de drenagem, as estradas e as lavouras da bacia. Foram coletadas um total de quarenta amostras distribuídas nas áreas fontes de sedimentos. Sete eventos foram monitorados entre os anos de 2009 e 2011 e 24 amostras foram coletadas ao longo destes eventos. Como traçadores foram utilizados elementos químicos, de proveniência natural ou antrópica: sódio (Na), potássio (K), magnésio (Mg), cromo (Cr), manganês (Mn), ferro (Fe), cobre (Cu), zinco (Zn), cádmio (Cd), mercúrio (Hg), chumbo (Pb) e fósforo (P). Foi demonstrado que os elementos determinados como o melhor conjunto de traçadores (P, Fe, Mn, Mg e K) possuem capacidade em determinar a origem dos sedimentos. Pode-se afirmar que há variabilidade de fontes de sedimentos durante os eventos de chuva-vazão. O estudo revelou que o canal de drenagem contribui com boa parcela dos sedimentos (0 a 72%), principalmente no início do hidrograma. Mesmo utilizando práticas agrícolas de conservação dos solos e dos recursos hídricos as lavouras são as principais fontes fornecedoras de sedimentos, crescendo sua contribuição ao longo do evento (27 a 100%). Os sedimentos oriundos das estradas não possuíram contribuição relevante (0 a 23%) durante os eventos monitorados. Existem evidências da variabilidade das fontes de sedimentos durante a subida e a descida da onda de cheia ocorrida em eventos de chuva. / This work refers to the variability of the source of sediment transported during rainfall-runoff events in a small rural catchment (1.19 km2). This basin is located in the south of Brazil and the area is characterized by the presence of family farmers who mainly cultivate tobacco in areas considered unsuitable for agricultural activities, according to the system of agricultural capability of the soil. This causes severe soil loss by water erosion. In this study we used techniques hydrosedimentometrics with multivariate statistical analyzes to determine the provenance of sediments during the rise and fall of the flood wave in precipitation events varied. The methodology is called "fingerprinting method" and allows assessing which areas are contributors to sediment yield intra-rainfall-runoff events. We defined three areas with potential for sediment production, and sources, channel drainage, roads and crops in the basin. We collected a total of forty samples distributed in source areas of sediment. Seven events were monitored between 2009 and 2011 and 24 samples were collected during these events. Tracers were used as chemicals, natural or manmade origin of sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc ( Zn), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb) and phosphorus (P). It has been demonstrated that certain elements like the best set of tracers (P, Fe, Mn, Mg and K) have the ability to determine the origin of sediments. It can be said that there is variability of sediment sources during rainfall-runoff events. The study revealed that the drainage channel contributes good portion of the sediments (0-72%), especially early in the hydrograph. Even using agricultural practices to conserve soil and water resources crops are the main sources of sediment supply, growing their contribution throughout the event (27 to 100%). Sediment from roads did not possess relevant contribution (0-23%) during the monitored events. There is evidence of the variability of sediment sources during ascent and descent of the flood wave occurred in rain events.

Este trabalho refere-se à variabilidade da origem dos sedimentos transportados durante eventos de chuva-vazão em uma pequena bacia hidrográfica rural (1,19 Km2). Esta bacia está localizada no sul do Brasil e a área é caracterizada pela presença de agricultores familiares que principalmente cultivam fumo em áreas consideradas inaptas para atividades agrícolas, de acordo com o sistema de aptidão agrícola do solo. Isto ocasiona severas perdas de solo por erosão hídrica. Neste estudo foram utilizadas técnicas hidrossedimentométricas com análises estatísticas multivariadas para determinação da procedência dos sedimentos durante a subida e a descida da onda de cheia em eventos de precipitação variada. A metodologia utilizada é denominada “método Fingerprinting” e possibilita avaliar quais são as áreas contribuintes para a produção de sedimentos intra-eventos de chuva-vazão. Foram definidas três áreas com potencial para produção de sedimentos, sendo as fontes, o canal de drenagem, as estradas e as lavouras da bacia. Foram coletadas um total de quarenta amostras distribuídas nas áreas fontes de sedimentos. Sete eventos foram monitorados entre os anos de 2009 e 2011 e 24 amostras foram coletadas ao longo destes eventos. Como traçadores foram utilizados elementos químicos, de proveniência natural ou antrópica: sódio (Na), potássio (K), magnésio (Mg), cromo (Cr), manganês (Mn), ferro (Fe), cobre (Cu), zinco (Zn), cádmio (Cd), mercúrio (Hg), chumbo (Pb) e fósforo (P). Foi demonstrado que os elementos determinados como o melhor conjunto de traçadores (P, Fe, Mn, Mg e K) possuem capacidade em determinar a origem dos sedimentos. Pode-se afirmar que há variabilidade de fontes de sedimentos durante os eventos de chuva-vazão. O estudo revelou que o canal de drenagem contribui com boa parcela dos sedimentos (0 a 72%), principalmente no início do hidrograma. Mesmo utilizando práticas agrícolas de conservação dos solos e dos recursos hídricos as lavouras são as principais fontes fornecedoras de sedimentos, crescendo sua contribuição ao longo do evento (27 a 100%). Os sedimentos oriundos das estradas não possuíram contribuição relevante (0 a 23%) durante os eventos monitorados. Existem evidências da variabilidade das fontes de sedimentos durante a subida e a descida da onda de cheia ocorrida em eventos de chuva. / This work refers to the variability of the source of sediment transported during rainfall-runoff events in a small rural catchment (1.19 km2). This basin is located in the south of Brazil and the area is characterized by the presence of family farmers who mainly cultivate tobacco in areas considered unsuitable for agricultural activities, according to the system of agricultural capability of the soil. This causes severe soil loss by water erosion. In this study we used techniques hydrosedimentometrics with multivariate statistical analyzes to determine the provenance of sediments during the rise and fall of the flood wave in precipitation events varied. The methodology is called "fingerprinting method" and allows assessing which areas are contributors to sediment yield intra-rainfall-runoff events. We defined three areas with potential for sediment production, and sources, channel drainage, roads and crops in the basin. We collected a total of forty samples distributed in source areas of sediment. Seven events were monitored between 2009 and 2011 and 24 samples were collected during these events. Tracers were used as chemicals, natural or manmade origin of sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc ( Zn), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb) and phosphorus (P). It has been demonstrated that certain elements like the best set of tracers (P, Fe, Mn, Mg and K) have the ability to determine the origin of sediments. It can be said that there is variability of sediment sources during rainfall-runoff events. The study revealed that the drainage channel contributes good portion of the sediments (0-72%), especially early in the hydrograph. Even using agricultural practices to conserve soil and water resources crops are the main sources of sediment supply, growing their contribution throughout the event (27 to 100%). Sediment from roads did not possess relevant contribution (0-23%) during the monitored events. There is evidence of the variability of sediment sources during ascent and descent of the flood wave occurred in rain events.

Este trabalho refere-se à variabilidade da origem dos sedimentos transportados durante eventos de chuva-vazão em uma pequena bacia hidrográfica rural (1,19 Km2). Esta bacia está localizada no sul do Brasil e a área é caracterizada pela presença de agricultores familiares que principalmente cultivam fumo em áreas consideradas inaptas para atividades agrícolas, de acordo com o sistema de aptidão agrícola do solo. Isto ocasiona severas perdas de solo por erosão hídrica. Neste estudo foram utilizadas técnicas hidrossedimentométricas com análises estatísticas multivariadas para determinação da procedência dos sedimentos durante a subida e a descida da onda de cheia em eventos de precipitação variada. A metodologia utilizada é denominada “método Fingerprinting” e possibilita avaliar quais são as áreas contribuintes para a produção de sedimentos intra-eventos de chuva-vazão. Foram definidas três áreas com potencial para produção de sedimentos, sendo as fontes, o canal de drenagem, as estradas e as lavouras da bacia. Foram coletadas um total de quarenta amostras distribuídas nas áreas fontes de sedimentos. Sete eventos foram monitorados entre os anos de 2009 e 2011 e 24 amostras foram coletadas ao longo destes eventos. Como traçadores foram utilizados elementos químicos, de proveniência natural ou antrópica: sódio (Na), potássio (K), magnésio (Mg), cromo (Cr), manganês (Mn), ferro (Fe), cobre (Cu), zinco (Zn), cádmio (Cd), mercúrio (Hg), chumbo (Pb) e fósforo (P). Foi demonstrado que os elementos determinados como o melhor conjunto de traçadores (P, Fe, Mn, Mg e K) possuem capacidade em determinar a origem dos sedimentos. Pode-se afirmar que há variabilidade de fontes de sedimentos durante os eventos de chuva-vazão. O estudo revelou que o canal de drenagem contribui com boa parcela dos sedimentos (0 a 72%), principalmente no início do hidrograma. Mesmo utilizando práticas agrícolas de conservação dos solos e dos recursos hídricos as lavouras são as principais fontes fornecedoras de sedimentos, crescendo sua contribuição ao longo do evento (27 a 100%). Os sedimentos oriundos das estradas não possuíram contribuição relevante (0 a 23%) durante os eventos monitorados. Existem evidências da variabilidade das fontes de sedimentos durante a subida e a descida da onda de cheia ocorrida em eventos de chuva. / This work refers to the variability of the source of sediment transported during rainfall-runoff events in a small rural catchment (1.19 km2). This basin is located in the south of Brazil and the area is characterized by the presence of family farmers who mainly cultivate tobacco in areas considered unsuitable for agricultural activities, according to the system of agricultural capability of the soil. This causes severe soil loss by water erosion. In this study we used techniques hydrosedimentometrics with multivariate statistical analyzes to determine the provenance of sediments during the rise and fall of the flood wave in precipitation events varied. The methodology is called "fingerprinting method" and allows assessing which areas are contributors to sediment yield intra-rainfall-runoff events. We defined three areas with potential for sediment production, and sources, channel drainage, roads and crops in the basin. We collected a total of forty samples distributed in source areas of sediment. Seven events were monitored between 2009 and 2011 and 24 samples were collected during these events. Tracers were used as chemicals, natural or manmade origin of sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc ( Zn), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb) and phosphorus (P). It has been demonstrated that certain elements like the best set of tracers (P, Fe, Mn, Mg and K) have the ability to determine the origin of sediments. It can be said that there is variability of sediment sources during rainfall-runoff events. The study revealed that the drainage channel contributes good portion of the sediments (0-72%), especially early in the hydrograph. Even using agricultural practices to conserve soil and water resources crops are the main sources of sediment supply, growing their contribution throughout the event (27 to 100%). Sediment from roads did not possess relevant contribution (0-23%) during the monitored events. There is evidence of the variability of sediment sources during ascent and descent of the flood wave occurred in rain events.