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This study investigates gender differences in South African self-employment, focusing particularly on earnings differences. The study identifies a large earnings gap in favour of men in self-employment, and it explores how the determinants of female and male returns to self-employment differ. Using a combination of descriptive and econometric methods and data from the Labour Force Surveys for 2001-2007, I find that female self-employment is more likely than male selfemployment to exhibit characteristics that are associated with low returns. The female self-employed tend to work part-time, be home-based, have own account enterprises and work in unskilled occupations in the informal sector. The data also suggest the presence of gender discrimination among the self-employed which may be the result of consumer discrimination and discrimination in access to credit or product markets. Focusing on the non-agricultural informal sector, I construct a more detailed gendered profile of the self-employed using a household survey from October 2005, namely the Survey of Employers and the Self-Employed. This survey captures a wealth of information on the self-employed and their businesses which is not available in the Labour Force Survey data. The analysis reveals that, in comparison to men, women are more likely to enter self-employment out of necessity, spend less starting a business, have poorer access to transport and report lower overheads. In light of the key constraints identified particularly by women in self-employment, the analysis suggests that assistance with marketing, better access to raw materials/supplies, provision of an alternative location, and better access to credit markets would help improve the profitability of their businesses. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.

Thesis (MTech (Business Administration in Project Management))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2011. / Human capital is both a key driver of economic growth and a means to promote overall development. In order to enhance human capital in South Africa, tertiary institutions have seen a tremendous increase in students' enrolment over the past few decades. But, in spite of the need for skilled labour, tertiary education graduates are increasingly faced with unemployment, which poses a serious obstacle to the economic growth of the country. This study investigated the role of tertiary education in enhancing selfemployment among project management graduates. This study was descriptive in nature and intended to find answers to research questions, which comprised the extent to which tertiary education seeks to motivate students to self employment. In addition, the study sought to find challenges related to self-employment facing project management students after they have completed their studies, as well as reasons why some people choose self-employment over salaried employment. Data were collected with the use of a self-administered structured questionnaire. Collected data were analysed using of the statistical software for social science (IBM SPSS Statistics version 19) for descriptive statistics in the form of tables and charts. Furthermore, statistical tests, using chi-square values at the 0.05 level of significance, were performed to determine factors influencing individuals to choose a self-employment career. The study found that education may either enhance individual entrepreneurial ability, thereby increasing the likelihood of choosing self-employment or increase opportunities for paid employment, both of which reduce unemployment. In addition, tertiary education provides human capital that enables graduates to achieve increased level of productivity, which leads to earning more income than lower educated people in both paid employment and self-employment career. Unfortunately, graduates face financial related challenges, which constrain them from undertaking self-employment endeavours. The results of this study suggest that graduate unemployment can only be eliminated if students are provided with the right skills and knowledge to match the requirement of the employment market. Furthermore, the study suggests that graduates should be assisted financially at the initial stage of their self-employment activities.

The perception that someone has of an entrepreneurial career ultimately influences his/her decision to pursue such a career path. By investigating employees' perceptions of owning a business, this study provides insights regarding the question of why so few South Africans embark on this path. Entrepreneurship is regarded by many as the solution to South Africa’s employment and economic problems. As such, an understanding of the reason why some people become entrepreneurs and others do not could provide solutions on how to stimulate entrepreneurship among all South Africans, and hopefully increase the levels of entrepreneurship in the country. The purpose of the study was to contribute to the field of entrepreneurship by investigating the perceptions and attitudes that employees have regarding an entrepreneurial career, that is, to ask employees what they think having their own business might be like. By investigating these perceptions, the researcher looked for reasons why many individuals remain in the employment of others rather than embarking on an entrepreneurial career, as well as establishing whether these employees had intentions of starting their own businesses, Therefore the primary objective of this study was twofold, namely to establish the perceptions that employees have regarding self-employment, running their own business or following an entrepreneurial career, and to establish the influence of these perceptions on their entrepreneurial intentions. After conducting a comprehensive literature study and examining the various models of intentions, attitude towards the behaviour was identified as having the strongest influence on entrepreneurial intentions. Attitude towards the behaviour is the extent to which an individual makes a favourable or unfavourable evaluation of the behaviour in question, and additionally is a function of beliefs applicable to the behaviour. Attitude towards the behaviour is closely related to perceived desirability, and “desirability” is a form of value. More specifically, work values have the propensity to significantly predict career choice. For the purpose of this study, the 14 work values identified by Farrington et al. (2011) served as the factors to be investigated in establishing the perceptions of an entrepreneurial career. The independent (work values) and dependent (entrepreneurial intentions) variables investigated in this study were defined and operationalised. Reliable and valid items were sourced from existing studies. Respondents were identified by means of convenience and snowball sampling, and a structured questionnaire was made available to the respondents. The data gathered from the 184 usable questionnaires was subjected to various statistical analyses. The validity and reliability of the measuring instrument were confirmed by means of an exploratory factor analysis and calculating Cronbach-alpha coefficients. Descriptive statistics were calculated to summarise the sample data distribution. Pearson’s moment product correlations were calculated to establish the correlations between the various work values and entrepreneurial intentions. Furthermore, a multiple regression analysis was undertaken to investigate whether relationships existed between the perceptions of an entrepreneurial career in terms of several work values and entrepreneurial intentions. The following work values were identified as influencing the entrepreneurial intentions of employees working in small businesses: - Stimulating; - Stability and advancement; - Flexibility; - Autonomy. The more the work values above were perceived to be experienced when following an entrepreneurial career, the more likely it was that the respondents in this study reported intentions of following such a career. In order to investigate the influence of the various demographic variables on the independent and dependent variables, an Analysis of Variance was performed. In addition, the post-hoc Bonferroni test was done to identify significant differences between the means scores of the various categories within each demographic variable. The practical significance of these differences was assessed by means of calculating Cohen’s d. The results showed a significant positive relationship between the demographic variable Population group and the dependent variable Entrepreneurial v intentions. In addition, relationships were identified between Population group and the intrinsic work values Challenging and Stimulating, the extrinsic-related work values Financial benefit and security and Stability and advancement, and the social-related work value Serving the community. A significant positive relationship was also reported between the demographic variable Entrepreneurial parents and the intrinsic-related work value Stimulating, the extrinsic-related work value Future prospects and the social-related work value Serving the community. The demographic variable Age showed a significant positive relationship with the extrinsic-related work value Financial benefit and security. This study has contributed to the field of entrepreneurship research by focusing on employee perceptions of entrepreneurship, and the influence of these perceptions on their intentions to become entrepreneurs. As far as can be established, no other study has adopted this perspective for understanding entrepreneurial behaviour in South Africa or abroad. Furthermore, no study has specifically focused on investigating entrepreneurial intentions among employees of small businesses.

This study describes the characteristics of informal economy workers and their households. The central reasons for initiating the study were twofold. Firstly, the informal economy has grown in size and it is increasingly recognised as an important component of the economy. Secondly, it is widely agreed that accurate measurement of the informal economy has not been achieved. Thus, the study aimed to describe the informal economy using the most up-to-date national labour force survey as well as assess how accurately the informal economy has been measured with that instrument. The informal economy has developed as a result of globalisation and the technological revolution (amongst other factors) according to researchers. Recognition that workers within the informal economy (and those subject to informalisation within the formal economy) are not achieving fair labour standards has led to efforts to re-conceptualise work. The informal economy is extremely difficult to define and four conceptual models are described in this study. Each of the models agrees that the informal economy operates outside the ambit of formal activities, thus a form of dualism is defined, and that the economy is heterogeneous in character. The models differ in how the informal economy interrelates with the formal economy; the dualist model proposes there is no interaction while the legalist model states that a superior-subordinate relationship exists between the two. Competing models view the informal economy as either survivalist or as a vibrant, productive entity. A notable characteristic of the informal economy is flexibility in working conditions. This study will contribute to debate on the nature and measurement of the informal economy in South Africa. The method used in this study was secondary analysis of the Labour Force Survey. Integrating elements of theory and measurement, it is suggested that the design of the survey instrument reinforces the dualist model. Analysis revealed that different economies - formal and informal - occur and that, although the two are not mutually exclusive, these exhibit markedly different characteristics. The formal worker and his or her household showed significantly better statistics for a range of demographic, social and economic indicators. Formal employees enjoyed better quality employment relationships than informal workers, as demonstrated by higher proportions in permanent employment and longer duration of employment. Measurement of an interrelationship between the formal and informal economies was hampered by the design of the survey instrument, however, there is evidence that a relationship does exist and this was defined as superior-subordinate in nature. The heterogeneous nature of the informal economy was confirmed by example of a wide range of occupations, involving varied levels of skill. Generally, the South African informal economy appears to be survivalist in nature, as demonstrated by high frequencies of workers in occupations of low skill as well as by the general poverty and low standard of living exhibited by the informal workers' household. It was recognised that there are categories of worker who are worse off than the informal worker and this finding, along with the observation that disparities exist between different types of worker within the informal economy itself, raises the question of how useful it is to use the dualist framework for analysis. Informal workers did report higher levels of flexibility, however, it is argued that this would not compensate for poor statistics recorded for nearly all other indicators measured. Based on the analysis above, it is suggested that the informal worker 'formalise' if this path is made possible because it is clear that formal workers achieve a significantly better standard of living. In the long term this goal could be achieved by improving education levels and by facilitating access to the formal economy. In the short to medium term the outlook for the informal worker could be improved by adopting policies that foster improved work conditions, including improved access to medical aid, paid leave, and some form of pension or retirement plan. The study concludes that measurement of the informal economy is more accurate than past attempts, but that further improvement is possible. Given the disparities within the informal work force and the idea that a dualist approach is not the most effective conceptualisation of the labour force, the study calls for a flexible survey instrument that caters for various definitions of the informal worker. The inclusion of additional questions, for example to measure workers' perceptions of exploitation and satisfaction with working conditions, is encouraged. These suggestions would facilitate effective investigation of alternative conceptualisations of the informal economy through means of the survey instrument. / Thesis (M.Dev. Studies)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

Recently, researchers have shown enormous interest in the informal sector due to extensive poverty and rising unemployment trend in the South African economy. These problems have worsened in the Port Elizabeth economy, as most entrepreneurs have scaled down their operations or liquidated their businesses due to a structural decline in the manufacturing sector and periodic recessions in the national economy. Undoubtedly, the informal sector has become a reasonable economic alternative as far as income accumulation and employment generation. The present study shows that the informal sector is characterised mainly by self-employment and also the income from this sector has also improved the standard of living of most sampled households in New Brighton and KwaMagxaki. The aim of this thesis, then, is to evaluate the nature, extent, meaning and influence of the informal sector in the Port Elizabeth Black economy. However, this can only be achieved once the informal sector is placed within the appropriate theoretical framework. This is done by comparing and contrasting the different conceptualisations of the informal sector in the literature. In conclusion, the thesis combines the different conceptualisations of the informal sector in the literature with the empirical evidence from the Port Elizabeth townships' informal sector. The important findings of the study are: The informal sector is mainly characterised by distributive activities than productive activities. Women comprised 62% of the informal sector. Economically-active members of the economy are in the informal sector. Education levels in this sector are relatively low. The informal sector is characterised by one-man businesses with few employees who are also family members. There was no trace of migrants in the informal sector. The informal sector is characterised by linkages. Informal income alleviates conditions of poverty. Policies have to implemented for the development of the informal sector. Twenty-three percent of the households in New Brighton were in the informal sector and only 6% in KwaMagxaki. Although, this study focuses in Port Elizabeth, it is the intention that the results presented will provide a broad overview of what the informal sector is.

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Management Sciences: Business Administration, Durban, South Africa, 2017. / Given the current, global, economic situation, the status of youth entrepreneurship in South Africa is no different to that of the youth in other countries. It is debatable whether similar support and mechanisms used by other countries can be used without contextualising them for the South African environment. Cultural differences, level of education, different market standards, and a different socio-political environment are some of the factors that should be taken into consideration, when aiming to create an enabling environment that will open entrepreneurial opportunities for South African youth. A major threat for youth, especially in South Africa, is that if their needs and desires are not addressed, the youth will lose faith in starting their own entrepreneurial activities and in that way, become more dependent on the government to create employment opportunities for them. This situation certainly could add to the currently high unemployment rate and in the long-term, high youth unemployment could destabilise the country. This study is aimed at investigating entrepreneurship activities in a semi-rural area, with the aim of identifying the inherent weaknesses that prevent young people from pursuing entrepreneurial activities, as well as those enabling factors that can mitigate against these identified weaknesses. The study is conducted in the UGu District Municipality, specifically, the Umdoni Local Municipal area has been selected. A mixed methods research approach was used and 120 respondents from the selected municipal area participated in this study, including the municipal official. The study highlighted that access to financial support is one of the primary obstacles for the setting-up of a new business, since the majority of young people in the area tend to come from disadvantaged backgrounds. In addition, the research pointed to other challenges, including the business registration process, lack of adequate entrepreneurial training and mentoring programmes, the impact of crime in starting a fledging business and general support from government departments and agencies. Should these challenges not be addressed through an enabling environment, young people will, in the process, be discouraged from engaging in entrepreneurial activities. Given that the study was conducted in a semi-rural area, there are certainly greater challenges to the development of youth entrepreneurship. Therefore, the recommendations include municipalities creating a special relationship with government agencies to obtain greater assistance; that Government and its agencies consider setting up a designated fund to assist young people who want to open business in semi-rural and rural areas; that the administrative requirements for such a group of young entrepreneurs, in respect of funding, training, support, mentoring and business registration, be much more accessible and easier to obtain. / M