Experiences in treating wine distillery wastewaters (WDWs) contribute to the field of oenology as many oenologists are concerned with the selection, efficiency and economy of their wastewaters. Wine distillery wastewaters are strongly acidic, have high chemical oxygen demand (COD), high polyphenol content and are highly variable. Primary attention was focussed on sustainable biological treatment of raw wine distillery wastewater (RWDW) and fungally pre-treated wine distillery wastewater (FTWDW) by energy-efficient high rate anaerobic digestion (AD). This study also explored the development of a novel dual-stage anaerobic digestion ultrafiltration (ADUF) process, using a ceramic submerged membrane bioreactor (SMBR) in the treatment of both RWDW and FTWDW. The first stage was for the selection of microorganisms that were able to treat the toxic pollutants from WDWs. It was operated at a high feed-to-microorganism ratio. The second stage, a secondary digester, was operated like a typical membrane bioreactor at a low feed-to-microorganism ratio to sustain a stable efficient population for a long period. The characteristics of RWDW were as follows: pH 3.83, 15 000 mg/l soluble COD (CODs) and 5229 mg/l of phenols. After pre-treatment of RWDW with Trametes pubescens, starting parameters for FTWDW were as follows: pH 6.7, 7000 mg/l soluble COD (CODS) and 1440 mg/l of phenols. During operation of a high rate anaerobic digester for RWDW treatment, K2HPO4 was required for buffering the digester. Volatile fatty acid concentrations were <300 mg/l throughout the study, indicating degradation of organic acids present. Mean CODS removal efficiency for the 130 day study was 87 %, while the mean polyphenol removal efficiency was 85 %. Addition of 50 mg/l Fe3+ increased the removal efficiencies of CODS to 97 % and of polyphenols to 99 %. High removal efficiencies of CODS and polyphenols were attributed to the addition of macronutrients and micronutrients that caused pH stability and stimulated microbial activity. The CODS removal efficiency of high rate anaerobic digestion of FTWDW reached 99.5%. During FTWDW digestion, pH buffering was achieved using K2HPO4. A combination of a SMBR and a secondary digester was tested for the treatment of RWDW and FTWDW during a 30 day study. Results for RWDW showed that pH buffering was achieved by dosing the feed stream with CaCO3 and K2HPO4. Buffering proved to be significant for optimum performance of the system in removal of soluble CODS, and volatile fatty acids (VFAs). Different batches of RWDW used for feeding the reactor had variable compositions with respect to concentrations of nitrates, ammonium and total phenolic compounds. Ammonium accumulated in the secondary digester after 14 days of system operation, indicated the time required for the establishment of anaerobic conditions in the system. Dosing of the SMBR treating FTWDW with CaCO3 and K2HPO4 buffered the pH; iii this proved significant for optimum performance of the system in removal of CODS. The system eliminated an average of 86 (± 4) % of CODS present in the FTWDW. The residual CODS levels in the effluent were approximately 400 mg/l, significantly lower than the concentrations observed when treating RWDW, indicating that fungal pre-treatment might have provided additional nutrients for removal of recalcitrant components of the wastewater. The resulting effluent was rich in nitrates and phosphates and might be used as a fertiliser. Alternatively, a membrane process, such as reverse osmosis (RO) or nanofiltration (NF) could be applied to raise the water quality to meet the levels required for reuse. Biomass samples were obtained from the four treatment systems and population shifts characterization using phospholipids fatty acids (PLFA) and 16S rRNA analysis to provide an indication of limitations within the microbial population. The values of the concentrations of the individual PLFAs detected in the samples indicated that ten bacterial species were present, with the GC content of the 16S rRNA increasing from 1 to 10. Analysis of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis DGGE data indicated that the composition of the archeal community changed the consortia used for both RWDW and FTWDW treatment. Changes in band intensities indicated the presence of different components of the archeal communities. The results were not conclusive in terms of species identity as cloning, sequencing and phylogenetic analyses were not performed, but they did indicate microbial population shifts and species diversity for high rate anaerobic digestion. The results also confirmed prevalence of relatively few species during operation of SMBRs for treatment of RWDW and FTWDW, which suggested that the microorganisms that survived were either tolerant of toxic components of RWDW and FTWDW or they were able to remove polyphenols.

An investigation of the biodegradation of complex hydrocarbon wastes, with emphasis on chlorinated aromatic compounds, in an anaerobic/aerobic bioprocess environment was made. A reactor configuration was developed consisting of linked anaerobic and aerobic reactors which served as the model for a proposed bioremediation strategy targeting subterranean soil/sediment/aquifer chlorinated phenol-contaminated environments. Here oxygen is frequently limited and sulphate is readily available, as occurs especially in marine sediment and intertidal habitats. In the anaerobic system the successful transformation and mobilization of the model contaminant, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, was shown to rely on reductive dechlorination by a sulphate-reducing dependent dechlororespiring co-culture. This was followed in the aerobic system by degradation of the pollutant and its metabolites, 2,4-dichlorophenol, 4-chlorophenol and phenol, by immobilized white-rot fungi.The strategy was initially investigated separately in laboratory bench- and intermediate scale reactors whereafter reactors were linked to simulate the integrated biodegradation strategy. The application of the fungal reactor to treat an actual waste stream by degrading complex mixtures of hydrocarbons in a waste oil recycling effluent was also investigated. The mineralization of phenol and 2,4,6-TCP by immobilized fungal cultures was studied in pinewood chip and foam glass bead-packed trickling reactors. The reactors were operated in sequencing batch format. Removal efficiency increased over time and elevated influent phenol and TCP (800 and 85 mg.L⁻¹) concentrations were degraded by > 98 % in 24 – 30 h batch cycles. Comparable performance between the packing materials was shown. Uptake by the packing was negligible and stripping of compounds induced by aeration had a minimal effect on biodegradation efficiency. Reactor performances are discussed in relation to sequencing batch operation and nutrient requirements necessary to sustain fungal activity in inert vs. organic material packed systems. It was shown that a co-culture consisting of sulphate-reducing and dechlororespiring bacteria established in fed-batch and soil flasks, as well as pine chip-packed fluidized bed reactors. Results showed reductive dechlorination of 2,4,6-TCP to be in strict dependence on the activity of the sulphate-reducing population, sulphate and lactate concentrations. Transformation to 2,4-DCP, 4-CP and phenol was enhanced in sulphate deficient conditions. Dechlororespiring activity was found to be dependent on the fermentative activity of sulphate-reducing bacteria, and the culture was also shown to mobilize and dechlorinate TCP in soils contaminated with the pollutant. Linking the systems achieved degradation of the compound by > 99 % through fungal mineralization of metabolites produced in the dechlororespiring stage of the system. pH correction to the anaerobic reactor was found to be necessary since acidic effluent from the fungal reactor inhibited sulphate reduction and dechlorination. The fungal reactor system was evaluated at intermediate-scale using a complex waste oil recycling effluent. Substantial COD reduction (> 96 % in 48 h batch cycles) and removal of specific effluent hydrocarbon components was shown in diluted, undiluted (COD > 37 g.L⁻¹) and 2,4,6-TCP-spiked effluents. Industrial application of the fungal reactor was evaluated in a 14 m³ pilot plant operated on-site at a waste oil processing plant.

In South Africa, wastewater disposal in the wine and distilling industry is undergoing a profound transformation as a result of fundamental changes in regulations and license requirements. To deal with this problem conventional Waste Stabilisation Ponding systems have been used by the industry together with irrigation and evaporation disposal practises. Although effective in the evaporation and containment disposal functions, these pond systems are generally not properly designed and/or managed, resulting in overloading and, at times, the generation of seriously offensive odour problems. Preliminary studies on the feasibility of utilising the Advanced Integrated Wastewater Ponding System as a core treatment technology in winery wastewater treatment were conducted. Results indicated that specific problems had to be addressed before successful ponding treatment could be achieved. This research programme undertook an investigation of the performance of a demonstration ponding system treating household sewage, which formed the basis of the research due to limited experience reported on ponds treating wine industry wastewaters. Malfunctions identified were in correlation with the preliminary winery waste ponding survey, which included unstable fermentation pit functions and inadequate nutrient removal. Retrofitting the fermentation pit with a nylon net across the rising water column resulted in improved retention of active anaerobic sludge, especially during periods of system start-up and/or organic overloading. An investigation into nutrient removal utilising algal biomass provided a valuable contribution towards development of an independent nutrient removal system. Harvested algal biomass was passively manipulated to release polysaccharides under anoxic conditions, with subsequent use as a carbon source by denitrifying organisms. Following denitrification, the still viable algal cells were introduced into a High Rate Algal Pond raceway for photosynthetically produced alkalinity. This high pH environment resulted in induced calcium phosphate mineral formation and subsequent precipitation, as well as effective ammonia stripping from the water. Based on the novel positive research outcomes a decision was made to proceed to the construction of a pilot-scale integrated ponding system treating wastewater from a wine lees factory. The system linked the Anaerobic Baffle Reactor, for pre-treatment, with the improved Advanced Integrated Wastewater Ponding System. The potential of this system has shown that a Waste Stabilisation Ponding system can be engineered to treat wine industry wastewaters and thereby effectively reduce the organic and nutrient loads, by using low-cost retrofitted upgrading unit operations. Valuable algal biomass may also be recovered as a by-product of the treatment process.

The hydrolysis of complex organic heteropolymers contained in municipal wastewater to simpler monomers by extracellular hydrolytic enzymes is generally considered the rate-limiting step of the biodegradation process. Previous studies of the Recycling Sludge Bed Reactor (RSBR) revealed that the hydrolysis of complex particulate organics, such as those contained in primary sludge (PS), was enhanced under anaerobic biosulphidogenic conditions. Although the mechanism was not fully understood, it appeared to involve the interaction of sulfide and sludge flocs. The current study was conducted using a 3500 ml laboratory-scale RSBR fed sieved PS at a loading rate of 0.5 kg COD/m³.day and an initial chemical oxygen demand (COD) to sulfate ratio (COD:SO₄) of 1:1. There was no significant accumulation of undigested sludge in the reactor over the 60-day experimental period and the quantity of SO₄ reduced indicated that the yield of soluble products from PS was at least as high as those reported previously for this system (> 50%). In the current study, the specific activities of a range of extracellular hydrolytic enzymes (L-alanine aminopeptidase, L-leucine aminopeptidase, arylsulphatase, α-glucosidase, β- glucosidase, protease and lipase) were monitored in a sulfide gradient within a biosulphidogenic RSBR. Data obtained indicated that the specific enzymatic activities increased with the depth of the RSBR and also correlated with a number of the physicochemical parameters including sulfide, alkalinity and sulfate. The activities of α- glucosidase and β-glucosidase were higher than that of the other enzymes studied. Lipase activity was relatively low and studies conducted on the enzyme-enzyme interaction using specific enzyme inhibitors indicated that lipases were probably being digested by the proteases. Further studies to determine the impact of sulfide on the enzymes, showed an increase in the enzyme activity with increasing sulfide concentration. Possible direct affects were investigated by looking for changes in the Michaelis constant (Km) and the maximal velocity (Vmax) of the crude enzymes with varying sulfide concentrations (250, 400 and 500 mg/l) using natural and synthetic substrates. The results showed no significant difference in both the Km and the Vmax for any of the hydrolytic enzymes except for the protease. The latter showed a statistically significant increase in the Km with increasing sulfide concentration. Although this indicated a direct interaction, this difference was not large enough to be of biochemical significance and was consequently not solely responsible for the enhanced hydrolysis observed in the RSBR. Investigation into the floc characteristics indicated that the biosulphidogenic RSBR flocs were generally small in size and became more dendritic with the depth of the RSBR. Based on the above data, the previously proposed descriptive models of enhanced hydrolysis of particulate organic matter in a biosulphidogenic RSBR has been revised. It is thought that the effect of sulfide on the hydrolysis step is primarily indirect and that the reduction in floc size and alteration of the floc shape to a more dendritic form is central to the success of the process.

Dissertation submitted in fulfillment of academic requirements for the Degree of Master of Technology: Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, 2008. / Currently KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province is populated with textile industry, which produces wastewater, some of which is not biodegradable. Due to the stringent environmental regulations the wastewater cannot be discharged into the rivers or public owned treatment systems. The alternative solution is to co-dispose this wastewater with easily biodegradable waste (labile effluent). The aim of this investigation was to develop a process protocol for the codigestion of high strength and toxic organic effluents under mesophilic conditions (35°C ± 2°C), with emphasis on the effect of biomass acclimation. A total of four effluents were chosen for this study, two labile (distillery and size) and two recalcitrant (scour dye and reactive dye). Two anaerobic batch experiments and two pilot scale trials were performed. The first batch anaerobic experiment investigated the influence of biomass source in anaerobic treatability. The second batch test investigated, whether biomass acclimation enhanced the biodegradability of pollutants. The pilot scale trials were the scale up version of the biomass acclimation test. The results showed sludge from Umbilo Wastewater Treatment Works was a superior biomass source, producing more gas and methane compared to Mpumalanga waste. For the high strength organic waste, the acclimated size and distillery samples produced 50% more biogas and methane compared to non-acclimated samples. This confirms that the biomass acclimation enhances the biodegradability. The biomass acclimation did not enhance the biodegradability of the recalcitrant effluent (scour dye). The pilot scale trials did not yield meaningful data; therefore it could not be proven if acclimation works on a larger scale. / Water Research Commission

Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: It was found that bacterial sludge from anaerobic water treatment systems is produced internationally at a rate of 60 grams per person per day and the accumulation of the potentially hazardous by-product has become of increasing concern. The produced bacterial sludge is frequently pumped into dams, dried out and used as agricultural fertilizer. This bacterial sludge is expected to have a relatively high heating value and as such, has the potential to produce energy from the biomass. It is, therefore, advisable to utilize this energy potential as an alternative to conventional sludge disposal. This project aimed to improve the yield of syngas by optimizing the reactor design to partially oxidize bacterial sludge using a sonochemical reactor that is operated at bulk atmospheric conditions. The effect of different conditions was investigated and the optimum settings for syngas production were found by investigating temperature, pressure and the effect of the amplitude of operation that regulates the energy input by the ultrasonic equipment. The optimum conditions were used to investigate the kinetics involved in this process as well as to determine the energy consumption by the process. It was also required to study the feasibility of partially oxidizing bacterial sludge using a sonochemical reactor instead of conventional steam gasification and also as an alternative means of sludge disposal. By eliminating this pollutant source, the future environmental threat posed by an increasing population size will be minimized and energy will be utilized from a thus-far wasted energy source. The syngas that is produced is used as a green alternative to fossil fuels in the Gas-to-Liquids (GTL) process to produce liquids fuels. A thus-far wasted energy source will be consumed and fossil fuels can be saved in the process. It was found that the maximum hydrogen mole percentage produced is 0.141 mole % of the vapour phase with the maximum carbon monoxide mole percentage in the vapour phase at 1.896 mole %. This shows an improvement on work conducted by Beyers (2011) of 59 % for hydrogen, 92% for carbon monoxide and a reduction of 49 % for carbon dioxide. A kinetic study of the process indicated that the rate equations that describe the hydrogen and carbon monoxide production are zero order and, therefore, independent of initial concentration of the sludge. The rate constants were 0.0146 (mol % hydrogen/s) and 0.0183 (mol % hydrogen/s) for hydrogen and carbon monoxide, respectively. It was found that the most severe change to the higher heating value of the feed was a mere 0.27 mJ/kg from an original value of 9.81 mJ/kg. This therefore confirms that the reaction has not proceeded to completion. The statistical model predicted a maximum value for hydrogen production at 0.151 mole % in the product gas, 0.01 mole % from the measured maximum. It was also found that hydrogen is produced during the sonolysis of distilled water and that this confirms that the hydrogen production during partial oxidation of the sludge sample comes mainly from the water present in the sludge. The hydrogen produced when only using water, was found to be 0.127 mole % and when using the active sludge, the value was 0.116 mole % hydrogen in the vapour phase. The thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate in the lime that is used to treat the pH of the unit where the sludge originates from, followed by the formation of carbon monoxide during the Boudouard reaction, led to an increased amount of carbon monoxide present in the product gas. Ultrasonic intensity is defined as the amount of energy that is transferred to the sample per cubic meter of the internal surface area of the reactor vessel. It was found that the intensity that was delivered to the reactant was lower than expected as the reactor was operating at an efficiency of only 36%. The design intensity was 1.44 W/m2 and the actual delivered intensity was 0.52 W/m2. Based on a maximum yield of 0.00012 Nm3/kg, the cost of syngas production under the conditions described by this study, would amount to R 19.98/Nm3. This cost only implicates the operational expenses and does not take further downstream processing and initial capital investment repayments into account. Conventional steam gasification at a yield of 0.67 Nm3/kg has an operational syngas production cost of R 1.48/Nm3. This process was therefore found to not be economically feasible as the cost of utilizing ultrasound as opposed to normal steam gasification is more than ten times more expensive. It was concluded that the process was successfully optimized by the redesigning of the reactor and that carbon dioxide production was limited by excluding oxygen from the feed gas. It was also concluded that the sonolysis of water and the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate, followed by the conversion of carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide, supplements the syngas production under the current operational conditions. Based on the production of no methane during the course of this study, the sonochemical process can be tied into the GTL process after the steam reforming unit. Due to the relatively high carbon dioxide content, the process will need to join the main feed gas stream that is fed into the carbon dioxide removal unit before it enters the GTL process to correct the desired feed gas ratio. Based on the very low syngas yields, the low hydrogen to carbon monoxide ratio in comparison to the required ratio of 2 as well as the high energy intensity required for this process, it can be concluded that the partial oxidation of biomass sludge in a sonochemical reactor is not feasible as an alternative technology to conventional steam gasification. The operating costs of the sonochemical unit would be nearly ten times that of steam gasification and is therefore concluded to not be a competitive technology to conventional steam gasification. It is recommended that the reactor design is reinvestigated to improve the delivered ultrasound intensity as well as the surface area where the ultrasonic waves are intensified. This would eliminate dead-zones. It was also recommended that the argon gas is continuously bubbled through the reactant mixture during experiments to eliminate the degassing effect caused when the ultrasound is initially emitted. The gas outlet of the process can then be connected to an online gas chromatograph (GC) with a thermal conductivity detector (TCD) and flame ionization detector (FID) methanizer in series as the TCD does not destroy the sample and this setup would improve the analytical process. The production of carbon monoxide from lime as well as the production of hydrogen from water during sonolysis needs to be investigated. The effect of radicals can also be studied by the addition of a radical scavenger to the process. It is recommended that the experimental design is reinvestigated and a design that will deliver similar information utilizing fewer data points should be chosen. Based on this model as well as further kinetic testing, it is recommended that a complete ASPEN model is developed to simulate the energy requirements to tie the ultrasonic process into the commercial plant. Based on this model, a complete feasibility study can then be conducted to determine the capital costs involved, the operating costs, the repayment period as well as taking the current costs of sludge disposal into account. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Daar is gevind dat bakteriele slik internasionaal geproduseer word deur anaerobiese waterbehandelingseenhede teen ‘n tempo van 60 gram per person per dag en dat die opberging van hierdie gevaarlike byproduk ‘n groeiende probleem word. Die geproduseerde bakteriele slik word in damme gestoor, uitgedroog of gebruik as kunsmis in die landbou bedryf. Daar word vermoed dat hierdie baketriele slik oor ‘n hoe verwarmings waarde beskik en het daarom die potensiaal om energie te produseer uit die biomassa. Daarom is dit voorgestel om alternatiewe prosesse te ondersoek om van hierdie slik ontslae te raak en moontlik die energie wat beskikbaar is te gebruik. Die projek is daarop gefokus om die produksie van syngas te verbeter deur die reaktorontwerp te optimeer deur gebruik te maak van parsiele oksidasie van slik onder atmosferiese kondisies deur klankgolwe te gebruik. Die effek van verskillende operasionele kondisies is ondersoek en die optimale vlakke van syngas produksie is gevind deur temperatuur, druk en amplitude wat die hoeveelheid energie wat oorgedra word aan die reaktor reguleer, te ondersoek. Die optimale kondisies is ook gebruik om die kinetiese aspekte van die proses te ondersoek en ook om te kyk wat die sisteem se energie benodighede behels. Die haalbaarheid om baketriele slik parsieel te oksideer in ‘n sonochemiese reaktor is vergelyk met dit van konvensionele stoom vergassing van die biomassa en is ook ondersoek as ‘n alternatief om van die slik ontslae te raak. Deur die slik te verwyder as ‘n potensiele bron van besoedeling, kan die toekomstige omgewing’s risiko wat deur die toename in die bevolkkingsgroote tot gevolg is, verwyder word deur ‘n energie bron te gebruik wat tot dusver geignoreer is. Die syngas wat geproduseer word kan dan gebruik word in die “Gas-to-Liquids” (GTL) process om vloeistof brandstowwe te produseer. Dus sal ‘n omgewingsrisiko verminder word, ‘n energiebron word benuttig wat nooit van tevore benuttig is nie en fosiel brandstowwe kan gespaar word. Die maksimum waterstof wat geproduseer is, was 0.141 mol % in die gas fase met ‘n maksimum waarde vir koosltof monoksied van 1.896 mol % in die gas fase. Dit toon ‘n verbetering van 59 % vir waterstof, 92 % vir koolstof monoksied en ‘n vermindering van 49% in die koolstof dioksied wat deur Beyers (2011) geproduseer is. Die kinetiese studie het ondervind dat die “rate equation” van waterstof en koolstofmonoksied beskryf word deur nul-orde kinetika. Hierdie konstantes was 0.0146 (mol % waterstof/s) en 0.0183 (mol % waterstof/s) vir waterstof en koolstofmonoksied. Daar is ook gevind dat die grootste moontlik verandering in die hoe verwarmings waarde van die biomassa is ‘n skamele 0.27 mJ/kg van die oorspronklike waarde van 9.81 mJ/kg. Hierdie waarneming staaf dus die uitkoms dat die reaksie dus nie tot die einde verloop het nie. Die statistiese model het ‘n maksimum van 0.151 mol % voorspel wat 0.01 mol % meer was as die waarde wat gemeet is. Dit is ook gevind dat waterstof geproduseer word deur die sonoliese van water en dat hierdie bykomende waterstof deel uitmaak van die produkgas aangesien die slik grootliks uit water bestaan.Die hoveelheid waterstof in die gas fase wat geproduseer is tydens sonoliese van ‘n suiwer water monster, was 0.127 mol %. Die hoeveelheid waterstof in die gas fase wanneer die slik behandel is ten optimal kondisies, was 0.116 mol % gemiddeld. Die hitte degradering van kalsium karbonaat wat teenwoordig is in die kalk wat gebruik word om die pH van die produksie eenheid te reguleer, gevolg deur die Boudouard reaksie, het tot gevolg dat addisionele koolstof monoksied ook gevorm word. Ultrasoniese intensiteit kan gedefineer word as die hoeveelheid energy wat oorgedra word aan ‘n reaktant gebasseer op die oppervlak area aan die binnekant van die reaktor. Die intensiteit waarteen die voermateriaal blootgestel word aan die klankgolwe was laer as verwag met ‘n 36 % effektiwiteit. Die ontwerp spesifiseer ‘n intensiteit van 1.44 W/m2 en die intensiteit wat fisies gelewer is, was 0.521 W/m2. Die maksimum produksie van syngas was 0.00012 Nm3/kg, wat lei tot ‘n operasionele koste van R 19.98/Nm3 onder die kondisies van hierdie studie. Hierdie koste neem nie die oorsponkilke kapitaal vir die konstruksie, of die koste van verdere behandelik van die gas, in ag nie. Konvensionele stoom vergassing teen ‘n opbrengs van 0.67 Nm3/kg het ‘n operasionele koste van R 1.48/Nm3 tot gevolg. Die proses is dus ekonomies nie ‘n aantreklike opsie nie aangesien die kostes van syngas produksie met ultraklank meer as tien keer meer is as konvensionele stoom vergassing. Daar is tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat die reaktor optimering suksesvol was en deur geen stuurstof te voer nie, die koolstofdioksied persentasie verminder is. Daar is ook tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat die sonoliese van water, en die hitte degradering van kalsium karbonaat, gevolg deur die Boudouard reaksie, die syngas produksie supplementeer. Aangesien geen metaan gedurende hierdie studie geproduseer is nie, kan die sonochemiese proses inskakel by die GTL aanleg na die stoom hervormingseenhed. As gevolg van die hoe koolstofdioksied konsentrasie, sal die prosesstroom gemeng moet word met die produk stroom uit die stoom hervormings proses, wat gevoer word na die koolstofdioksied verwyderings eenheid. Hierdie eenheid is daarvoor verantwoordelik om die korrekte verhouding van gasse vir die GTL voer stroom te reguleer. Gebasseer op die baie lae syngas opbrengs, die lae waterstof tot koolstofmonoksied verhouding en die hoe energie behoeftes, is daar tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat die parsiele oksidasdie van die biomassa in ‘n sonochemiese reaktor nie ‘n haalbare alternatief is vir konvensionele stoom vergassing nie. Die operasionele koste van die sonochemiese eenheid is ongeveer tien keer meer as die van stoom vergassing en daarom is die proses nie kompeterend nie. Daar word voorgestel dat die reaktor ontwerp hersien word om die gelewerde intensiteit te verbeter, sowel as om die kontak area waar die klankgolwe gekonsentreer is, te vergroot. Dit sal dooie sones uitskakel. Daar word ook voorgestel dat argon gas gedurende die eksperiment aanhoudende geborrel word deur die reaktant vloeistof in die reaktor om die ontgassingseffek uit te skakel sodra die klankgolwe aangeskakel word. Die gas uitlaat kan dan inlyn gekoppel word aan ‘n gas chromatograaf met ‘n termiese geleidings detektor (TCD) en ‘n vlam ionisasie detektor (FID) met metaan omskakeling, aangesien die TCD nie die monster vernietig nie. Hierdie opstelling behoort analitiese methodes te verbeter. Die produksie van koolstofmonoksied uit kalk sowel as die produksie van waterstof uit water gedurende sonoliese, moet verder ondersoek word. Die effek van radikale kan ook verder bestudeer word deur die gebruik van ‘n radikaal rower gedurende die proses. Daar word ook voorgestel dat die statistiese ontwerp herondersoek word sodat minder eksperimente gebruik kan word om soortgelyke resultate te bekom met minder data punte. Gebasseer op hierdie nuwe model en ‘n kinetiese studie, word dit aangeraai dat ‘n volledige ASPEN model gebou word om te simuleer hoe hierdie sonochemiese eenheid sal inskakel met die kommersiele eenheid. Dit sal dan moontlik wees om die energie benodighede van die proses te verstaan en gebasseer daarop, kan ‘n volledige haalbaarheid studie gedoen word wat kyk na oorspronklike installasie kostes, onderhouskostes, operasionele kostes sowel as die terugbetaling van die konstruksie kostes. Dan kan ‘n vergelyking getref word met die huidige kostes om van hierdie slik ontslae te raak en om die slik as ‘n brandstof te benut.

Thesis (MScEng (Process Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / The Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB) provides a state-of–the-art solution to effluent treatment by anaerobic digestion: sludge production is dramatically lower than in other digestion processes, and energy is gained from the system if the produced biogas is converted to electricity and/or heat. The UASB is a modified fluidised bed reactor, with the solid state ‘catalyst’ being granulated anaerobic sludge, and the liquid phase the effluent that needs to be treated. A gas cap is installed to serve as a carbon dioxide and methane collector. This biogas (carbon dioxide and methane) is produced by the stepwise decomposition of complex carbohydrates and proteins via a consortium of micro-organisms living in a symbiotic environment known as a granule. A typical UASB reactor has an organic removal rate of 89-93% Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and operates optimally at loadings of 9.8-11 kg COD/ m3 reactor volume/day. Unfortunately, one major problem hampers the efficiency of this reactor to such an extent that the unit is only economically viable in exceptional cases; if the reactor is inoculated with un-granulated anaerobic sludge, start-up times of up to 12 months can be expected. The lengthy start-up times motivated the search for an artificial way to cultivate USAB granules. Early research (done on lab-scale, 400ml vessel volumes) proved that, under a specified set of environmental conditions, granule growth can occur in an artificial environment. Yet these laboratory-scale vessels did not facilitate scale-up or the study thereof. This led to the main problem statement of this research project: namely to design, commission, and optimise benchscale bioreactors that will generate granulated anaerobic sludge in an incubation period of 20 days. These units should also facilitate in the determining of parameters that will assist in the design of a scale-up to a UASB granule producing reactor of economically viable size. Two bench-scale reactors were initially designed specifically to “mimic” the motion found in the laboratory-scale vessels. The results from these initial reactors proved that granulation cannot only be enhanced, but granules can actually be cultivated from dispersed anaerobic sludge in a larger artificial environment over an incubation period of only 20 days. The results were still far from satisfactory, as the granules produced were irregular in shape and the yield of usable granules (2.2 kg/m3 reactor volume) insufficient. A third test reactor was designed to “mimic” roller table movement and baffles were included. These results were much better and the yield was 4.4 kg/m3 reactor volume at a baffle tipspeed of 0.0055 m/s. The optimisation was extended further to include the inoculation sludge and the feed medium. A C:N:P ratio of 10:1:4 proved to yield the best results. Monovalent anions, hydrogen concentration and a pH-level outside the 6.5 to 7.2 range evidently had an inhibitory effect on the granulation rate. After the optimisation study the third test unit produced a usable granule yield of 15.2 kg/m3 reactor volume over the 20-day incubation period. The incubation period can be separated into 3 distinct phases, namely the acidification, stabilisation and growth phases. From the mass balance it was found that most of the COD and nutrients were used for ECP production in the acidification phase. During the stabilisation phase, the COD and nutrients were mostly used for nucleus formation, and finally in the growth phase the COD was used for granule growth. To study the effect the internal surface area of the reactor has on the granulation process, 3 scale-down versions of the third test unit were constructed. Within the studied range, a yield of usable granules of 40 kg/m2 reactor internal surface area was obtained.

Thesis (PhD (Food Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / In the absence of anaerobic granules, anaerobically digested sewage sludge is frequently used to seed industrial upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors. Because of its flocculent nature, start-up with digested sludge instead of granular sludge proceeds much slower and presents various operational problems. Any manner in which the granulation of digested sludge can be enhanced would benefit UASB reactor start-up and application in developing countries such as South Africa. The main objective of this dissertation was to improve granulation and reduce UASB reactor start-up by using pre-treated digested sludge as seed. The sludge was pre-treated based on the batch granulation-enhancement model of Britz et al. (2002). The main aim of the model was to improve extracellular polymer (ECP) production of lactate-utilising populations by applying short-term controlled organic overloading in a mechanically agitated environment. The batch granulation-enhancement (pre-treatment) process was applied to an ECP-producing digester strain, Propionibacterium jensenii S1. Non-methanogenic aggregates were formed when batch units were incubated on a roller-table instead of a linear-shake platform. Larger, more stable aggregates were obtained in the presence of apricot effluent medium. Preliminary batch granulation-enhancement studies confirmed that using the roller-table as mixing system had a positive influence on batch granulation-enhancement. The roller-table showed the most potential for handling larger volumes in comparison to a linear-shake waterbath and linear-shake platform. The addition of 450 mg.L-1 Fe2+ at the start of the study also influenced aggregate numbers positively. These studies revealed that pre-treatment results varied depending on the seed sludge source. A denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) method was applied for the detection of Archaea in digested sludges and UASB granules. In addition, a methanogenic marker containing methanogens important to the granulation process was constructed to aid identification. The positive influence of DMSO and “touchdown” PCR on the elimination of artifactual double bands in DGGE fingerprints were also demonstrated. Results revealed that only one of the four digested sludges tested contained Methanosaeta concilii (critical to granular nuclei formation) while it was present in all the UASB granules regardless of substrate type. Four digested sludges were obtained from stable secondary digesters. DGGE indicated the presence of M. concilii in all sludges. The Athlone 4Sb-sludge was the only sludge which exhibited measurable methanogenic activity during substrate dependent activity testing. The ST-sludge showed the highest increase in volatile suspended solids (VSS) particles ≥0.25 mm2. Laboratory-scale UASB reactor start-up was done with both sludges and start-up proceeded better in the Athlone 4Sb-reactor. Athlone 4Sb-sludge batches were pre-treated in a rolling-batch reactor in the presence of either lactate or sucrose and used to seed lab-scale UASB reactors B (sucrose seed) and C (lactate seed). Start-up efficiencies were compared to a control (Reactor A). Overall Reactor B was more efficient that the control. At the end of the study the Reactor B sludge had a higher methanogenic activity than the control reactor. It also had the highest increase in VSS ≥1.0 mm2. Pre-treatment of digested sludge in the presence of sucrose, therefore, aided granulation and reduced UASB reactor start-up time.

M. Tech. (Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology), Vaal University of Technolog / Textile industry effluents are carcinogenic and highly recalcitrant hence difficult to degrade especially through biological methods. Abattoir effluents are classified under high-strength wastewaters because of their characteristic high organic load hence highly biodegradable. Anaerobic co-digestion is the concept of degrading two effluent streams with complementary characteristics in order to improve the substrate removal rate. The feasibility of co-digesting abattoir and textile wastewater in a UASB reactor was evaluated at mesophilic and ambient temperature conditions. Preliminary experiments were conducted in 500 ml batch reactors to evaluate the optimum abattoir to textile synthetic wastewater ratio. The effect of COD, TVFA, alkalinity and pH on biogas yield was examined at both ambient and mesophilic temperatures. Anaerobic co-digestion of abattoir to textile wastewater in the ratio determined in the batch process was carried out in a 3 L UASB reactor by a continuous process. The continuous biodegradation process was executed at three different HRTs (22, 18 and 14 hrs) over a 60 day operation period. UASB reactor efficiency was achieved at organic loads ranging from 3.0 – 10.8 gCOD L-1 day-1. Continuous mode experiments were carried out at influent flow rates which corresponded to HRTs ranging between 1 to 8 days in order to evaluate the steady state operating parameters for the co-digestion process. The abattoir to textile effluent ratio was found to be 60:40 respectively. The COD, TVFA, alkalinity and pH and biogas yield followed a similar pattern over time at both mesophilic and ambient temperature conditions. Experimental data adequately fit the Grau first order kinetic model and average COD removal efficiencies of 85% and BOD5 of around 96% were achieved. The average biogas yield remained essentially constant, around 0.19 L/g CODremoved. The co-digested mixture was found to be biodegradable judging from the BOD:COD ratio of 0.53. TCOD removal efficiency decreased from 93% to 16% as HRT decreased from 8 days to 1 day. The kinetics of a UASB reactor co-digesting the mixture of synthetic abattoir and textile wastewater was evaluated in this study using Grau second order multicomponent substrate removal kinetic model. The Grau second order kinetic model, whose kinetic coefficient (ks) was 0.389, was found to be suitable for predicting the performance of a lab-scale UASB reactor.

Thesis (Master of Engineering in Chemical Engineering)--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017. / For more than a decade, poultry product consumption increased in developed and developing countries, with more than 470 new slaughterhouses being constructed in South Africa (SA). Customer demand for poultry products resulted in a rapidly growing poultry industry, with consequential increases in the quantity of organic solid and liquid waste being produced from the poultry slaughterhouses. Annually, the productivity and profitability within the livestock production sector has increased, an evaluation based on the number of slaughtered and sold animals. Potable water is required for these animals, resulting in the generation of high strength wastewaters. Instantaneous disposal of such wastewaters into the environment is concerning as it results in odour and the spreading of diseases in local rivers and freshwater sources. The generated poultry slaughterhouse wastewater (PSW) contains a high quantity of biodegradable organic, suspended and colloidal matter in the form of proteins, fats, oil and grease (FOG), protein from meat, blood, skin, and feathers, resulting in high Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), which can contribute to environmental deterioration if not treated adequately before discharge. On average, PSW contains a high concentration of BOD, COD, nitrogen, pathogenic and non-pathogenic viruses, bacteria and parasites, including their eggs. These characteristics make PSW highly polluted with a large quantity of bird carcass debris including FOG. Due to the high concentration of organic matter and suspended solids in the wastewater, it is necessary to pre-treat the PSW prior to sequential anaerobic treatment. Most of the contaminants present in the PSW can be reduced by means of numerous treatment steps, i.e. physical, chemical and biological treatment. For this study, biological treatment methods, physical separation methods, and a membrane bioreactor system, were used to treat PSW. The biological treatment methods used were an anaerobic digester (AD) followed by a single stage nitrification/denitrification reactor and then a third stage in which an ultrafiltration (UF) and Microfiltration (MF) membrane bioreactor (MBR) was used. The AD used was an Expanded Granular sludge Bed Reactor (EGSB) as anaerobic digestion is one of the most effective biological wastewater treatment methods used, as it reduces the organic matter to even produce biogas as a renewable energy source. The basis of anaerobic treatment method relies on suitable bacteria cultivated in the absence of dissolved oxygen, facilitating decomposition of organic matter into a renewable source such as biogas. Similarly, biological nitrification/denitrification processes for the removal of total nitrogen (TN) in wastewater has become one of the most commonly used processes within the wastewater treatment sector. Nitrification and denitrification processes can be performed by some microorganisms within the wastewater in Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) The PSW used was collected at different times from a local poultry slaughterhouse in the Western Cape (South Africa) and stored in a refrigerator at 4°C until it was fed to the first stage of the treatment which was the EGSB. Before being fed to the EGSB, the PSW was filtered with a sieve to remove feathers and agglomerated FOG to avoid clogging of the tubing. The EGSB was inoculated with 0.747 L anaerobic granular sludge, had a working volume of 2.7 L, an inner diameter of 0.065 m and a height of 0.872 m respectively. Ceramic marbles with an average diameter of 0.0157m were placed at the bottom of the bioreactor as packing for the underdrain and to maintain the granular sludge within the heated section of the bioreactor. The EGSB was fed with three types of PSW: 50% (v/v), 70% (v/v), which was diluted with distilled water. Thereafter once the system stabilised the reactor was fed with undiluted PSW (100%). Each dilution was operated at different Hydraulic Retention Times (HRTs) and Organic Loading Rates (OLRs), with average HRTs used being 62.5, 57.5 and 49.65 h. Furthermore, the average OLRs were 1, 2 and 3 g tCOD/L.day respectively. The performance of the EGSB was determined using tCOD, Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and FOG, with overall averaged removal rates for these constituents being 69%, 98% and 92% respectively. The highest tCOD removal of 93 % (optimal efficiency) was obtained at an average HRT of 57.5 h with a corresponding average OLR of 2 g tCOD/L.day.