Transactional sex is associated with high-risk HIV transmission behaviours. Published prevalence rates of this behaviour are varying and the sensitive nature of this behaviour may inhibit self-report disclosure. A two-phase study, involving qualitative analysis of focus group discussions on transactional sex, and a subsequent survey employing different self-report methods amongst a population of female tertiary education level students (N=305) was undertaken. The Unmatched Count Technique (UCT) and the Self-Administered Questionnaire (SAQ) in both computer and paper modes were compared in terms of disclosure levels yielded and socially desirable response scores. Base rates of transactional sex as yielded by the UCT were comparable to those of published research. No statistically significant results were obtained for differences in disclosure levels of transactional sex between the UCT and the SAQ. Performance of the UCT was mixed, demonstrating that the reliability and validity of findings obtained by the UCT are contingent on many factors, and further research regarding this is required. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

This study investigated communicative parameters in parent-adolescent and peer discussions about sex. While most sexual health interventions rely on communication and the dissemination of information, little research has sought to elucidate how talk about sex is mediated by the social and cultural context in which it occurs. This study was undertaken with the purpose of obtaining a better understanding of the way in which contextual factors mediate talk. In order to do this, oral histories of participants' first knowledge of sex and first sex experiences were accessed. Participants of different ages were interviewed with a view to exploring how social and cultural factors mediating talk changed over time. / Thesis(M.A.)-Universityof KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

A research report submitted to the School of Social Science, University of the Witwatersrand in partial fulfilment of the Master of Arts in Demography and Population Studies, November 2017 / Introduction: Across Sub-Saharan Africa, studies have shown transactional sex, characterized by the exchange of money or gifts for sex, to be one of the major contributing factors of HIV/AIDS infection. Risky sexual behaviours such as multiple sexual partners, non-condom use and transactional sex are driving forces behind negative health outcomes of young people. Thus, the aim of the study is to determine the association between socio-economic status and transactional sex among young women in South Africa, primarily to investigate whether transactional sex is a survival strategy or not among young women in South Africa. Methods: Secondary data analysis was done from a cross-sectional study conducted in 2012 by the Third National Communication Survey. This analysis was limited to 4 586 167 (weighted) sexually active females aged 16-24 who reported engaging in transactional sex. STATA version 13 was used to analyse this data. Descriptive statistics was used to analyse data at the univariate level. The Chi-squared test was conducted to test the relationship between the outcome variable and the independent variables. The complementary log-log regression model was used to analyse the data at multivariate level to identify the association between demographic factors (age, race, marital status, type of residence and province), socio-economic characteristics (education status or training status and employment status), beliefs towards behaviour, subjective norms towards behaviour and transactional sex. Results: Transactional sex was higher among women whose age at first sex was 18-19 (6.34%) compared to women of older ages 20+ years (0.4%). African women were likely to engage more in transactional sex (3.46%), compared to women of other races (2.48%). This study has found that a relationship between women who were not in Education, Employment and Training (NEETS) and transactional sex did not exist (AOR 1.10, 95% CI: 0.62-1.96). Single women had higher odds of engaging in transactional sex compared to cohabitating women and married women (AOR 1.04, 95% CI: 0.42-2.54). Conclusion: The findings of this study have shown that although transactional sex is a common behaviour among young women in South Africa, there is no relationship between socio economic status and transactional sex. Being NEETS has no association with young women engaging in transactional sex, which means that young women were more likely to engage in transactional sexual relationships for reasons other than survival; that is reasons for having fashionable clothes, cars, expensive holidays, and airtime. However, factors such as early age at first sexual encounter, race, and beliefs about behaviour and subjective norms were associated with transactional sex. The fact that some young women believed that they would not be infected with HIV suggests that there is a need to have intervention programmes to educate young people about HIV risk factors. This study is relevant in informing health policies, planning and programme designs of sexual and reproductive health services in South Africa. Transactional sex is a sensitive issue; problems of underreporting may be expected. / XL2018

Thesis submitted to: The Department of Psychology School of Human and Community Development , Faculty of Humanities , University of the Witwatersrand In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Psychology, Research and Coursework , January 2017 / Background: There is wealth of research that suggests that young heterosexual women are at an increased vulnerability for HIV through engagement in transactional sex. Transactional sex in young women in Sub-Saharan Africa, including South Africa, is rife and financial constraints are a major driver. Quantitative studies conducted in Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that young women that are involved in transactional sex are nearly two or more than three times vulnerable to HIV. The young women are involved in transactional sex with older men in order to access financial needs for survival as well as for purposes of consumerism. Transactional sex is not often understood, and at times it is conflated with sex work. This thesis seeks to add to scientific understanding of transactional sex in the field of health. The goals of this thesis are to explore the participants’ understanding of transactional sex. The thesis also seeks to explore a link between transactional sex and father absence for young women. This thesis fills the gaps identified in the studies of transactional sex. Wherein, there is very little research that has investigated the discourses that shape the practice of transactional sex. The study aim was to deepen scientific understanding of transactional sex in South Africa through examination of the discourses and structural financial constraints that influence transactional sex among young women. The specific objectives of this study were: i. To explore the discourses that shapes the participants’ understanding and their involvement in transactional sex. ii. To analyse the participants’ understanding of transactional sex in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), Mpumalanga (MP) and the Eastern Cape (EC) provinces. iii. To demonstrate the likely link between transactional sex and income poverty related to father absence. iv. To describe a probable link between transactional sex and vulnerability to HIV infection. Research methods: To meet objective (i) qualitative interview data were collected in three South African provinces which are KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape and Mpumalanga using focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews (KIIs). Invitation for participation by key informants (KIs) was sent to older men and women who are stakeholders of the communities studied. The KIs were invited from the social services sector such as the Police, Social Development, Health, Justice and Community-based leaders of faith, healers and youth leaders. For FGDs, participants were invited through meetings that are conducted in the communities and also through the distribution of fliers using facilitators in the communities that were selected as study sites. All participants for this study comprised both females and males above the age of 18 years. Trained field officers conducted FGDs which were gender-matched as well as KIIs. The FGDs varied in length with an average of above one hour each. KIIs were an average of 45 minutes long each. For all the interviews, isiZulu, siSwati and Xhosa were used, accordingly, to suit the participants’ local languages. All interviews were recorded using a digital recorder. After the interviews, the audio records were transcribed and saved in Microsoft word documents which were kept in password protected folders. I later read and coded the data then analysed it using thematic analysis for organising the codes in respective themes. I then used critical discourse analysis for an in-depth analysis of the themes. To meet objective number (ii) and (iii), in addition to text data, I conducted a comprehensive literature review. I present the literature review in Chapter 2 of this thesis. I also used the literature review to interpret the findings of the empirical study in Chapter 4. Findings and discussion: Heteronormative perceptions, Christian religion and African traditional culture as well as safe sex public health interventions are major discourses that appeared to influence the way in which transactional sex was perceived. The gender discourse owed to the consensual perception that transactional sex only happened between young women and older men. This was clear in the research findings. The main findings were; (i) participants’ understanding of transactional sex, (ii) the link between transactional sex and vulnerability to HIV, and (iii) probable relationship between transactional sex and father absence. The participants understood transactional sex as a source of income driven especially by perceived high rates of unemployment and poverty in the study sites. Young women were viewed as receivers of financial and material benefits yet givers of sex to men. The flip side of the same coin was that, men were viewed as the givers of material and financial benefits, and receivers of sex. The discourses found also demonstrated that transactional sex was fuelled by young women and their families’ financial needs. The financial constraints that young women and their families face could be influenced by the absence of the father who is supposedly a provider. Consumerist society that promotes extensive consumption of goods and services also appeared to be influential in the practice of transactional sex particularly for the young women. Conclusion: Transactional sex is not a new phenomenon in the study sites. It has been practiced in a several ways, were the community elders were in control of the transactions that were involved in different sexual intercourses that happened historically. The community elders facilitated financial transactions for sex in the forms of punishment when a man had sex with a young woman outside marriage. This punishment was identified as a payment for damage that the man would have caused. The man could also pay lobola as a form of compensation for the woman that he would have married. Overtime, the practice of these transactions has changed. The young women now consciously get involved in transactional sex so that they can directly receive money and gifts from the men that they give sex to. The change in the practice of transactions and sex reflects the change in the socio-economic conditions where there is a high need for consumerism which is constructed within the context of modernity. Consumerism emerges together with capitalism, which is a relatively new economic model in South Africa. Capitalism requires one to be employed so that they can have access to economic benefits. However, the rate of unemployment challenges the young women and deprives them of accessing the modern materials for consumerism. This influences the young women to consciously adopt the practice of transactional sex. It is this move by young women to decide adopting transactional sex that raises various panics among the elders of the community and the perpetuation of the discourses that transactional sex is an immoral and unacceptable practice. The panic has also become evident in the safe sex public health interventions where transactional sex is perceived as a dangerous practice among young women ad it should not be accepted. The interjection of the discourses of morality in transactional sex obstructs studies to clearly understand the discourses that influence its practice. These obstructions also limit knowledge that could be discovered by research and hence reduces the possibilities for interventions. Recommendations: Based on the findings from this study, it is recommended that research should increase focus on the effects of father absence to the practice of transactional sex. The studies in transactional sex also need to include samples of the at risk groups such as the LGBTI community. Transactional sex needs to be studied among young men as receivers of the financial and material benefits, as suggested in this study. Transactional sex is happening in the communities studied. It is therefore, recommended that public health interventions should encourage the practice of safe sex to prevent the spread of HIV. The long term interventions should address the structural factors which are; assisting young women to attain education which will make them employable so that they will be able to get sustainable incomes. The practice of transactional sex in KZN, MP and EC are tangled and shaped by the communities’ overarching discourses concerning sex and transactions. The overarching discourses make the practice of transactional sex to happen in a secretive manner particularly among young women. It is recommended that more studies need to be done among the overarching discourses of sex and transactions in these communities. It is important to extensively understand the overarching discourses and their effects through research because this will further unearth the hidden risks that come with the secretive practices of transactional sex. / MT2018

This interdisciplinary thesis examines the concept of sexuality through lenses provided by economic history, anthropology, and queer theory. A close reading reveals historical parallels from the late 1800s between concepts of a desiring, utility-maximizing economic subject on the one hand, and a desiring, carnally decisive sexological subject on the other. Social constructionists have persuasively argued that social and economic elites deploy the discourse of sexuality as a technique of discipline and social control in class- and gender-based struggles. Although prior scholarship discusses how contemporary ideas of sexuality reflect this origin, many anthropologists and queer theorists continue to use "sexuality" uncritically when crafting local, material accounts of sex, pleasure, affection, intimacy, and human agency. In this thesis, I show that other economic, political, and intellectual pathways emerge when sexuality is deliberately dis-ordered. I argued that contemporary research aspires to formulate new ideas about bodies and pleasures. It fails to do so adequately when relying on sexuality as a master narrative.

The genocide of April 1994 left the Rwandan society completely ruined and the survivors totally disoriented with numerous problems ranging from material deprivation to bodily and psychological injuries. As in other conflicts, especially in Africa, women and children were the most affected by the Rwandan genocide; consequently Rwanda has a sizeable number of widows and orphans. After the genocide, Rwanda witnessed an influx of many non-governmental organizations, which came with the aim to help the Rwandans in general, and genocide survivors in particular, as part of a program to put the Rwandan society back on its feet. Rwanda claims to be overwhelmingly a Christian nation, which theoretically gives the Christian community in Rwanda a prominent hand in all efforts of rebuilding the Rwandan society. This work therefore, is a Case Study, which seeks to investigate the role of Christian Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in responding to the needs of genocide widows residing in Kigali-Ville province-Rwanda. The study thus aims to assess efforts of the above-cited Christian NGOs and highlights their success and shortcomings in the light of a Christian model of understanding and responding to human needs. The investigation also surveys the background to the genocide. It focuses on the interpretation of the history of the people of Rwanda, the role impact of the colonial rule and Christian missionaries, and the role of the civil war of early 1990s. The study also investigates the plight of genocide widows from fives angles: economic loss, personal and social relationships, bodily injuries, psychological damage and spiritual welfare. The assessment was carried out through the analysis of the data collected mainly from selected Christian NGOs, genocide widows, churches, and written materials. The paradigm used to critically analyze the response of Christian NGOs has stemmed out of a body of literature that focuses on Christian response to human need, with particular emphasis on the distinctiveness of the Rwandan context. The findings, conclusion, recommendations of this study are of cardinal significance not only to Christian NGOs operating in Kigali-Ville province but also to other groups involved in the ministry to the needy in other parts of Rwanda and beyond her boundaries. / Thesis (M.Th.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.