Experiments were conducted to investigate the shear behaviour of large deep beams subjected to uniform load. Six tests were performed on specimens with identical cross sections and reinforcing, but under different loading configurations. Variables included: span, degree of cracking prior to loading, proximity to a disturbed region near a reaction, and type of flexural stress on the loaded face. The findings indicate a specific set of variables resulting in unconservative predictions made using a strut-and-tie model for simply-supported beams subjected to uniform load, confirming and validating recent results by other researchers. A fanning strut model is proposed and is shown to provide more conservative results. The emerging trend of high capacity in continuous uniformly-loaded specimens is supported by the experimental results, as is the high capacity of specimens uniformly-loaded on their flexural tension face. Further, the high strength of specimens with suboptimal crack orientations supports recent experimental work.

L'efficacité de pieux géothermiques (e.g. énergétiques) a été examinée et validée par de nombreuses études à partir de points de vue environnemental et énergétique jusqu'à présent. Néanmoins, la technologie des pieux géothermiques est encore peu connue et rarement appliquée dans la construction, notamment en France comparée à d'autres pays européens. La raison principale du manque d'attention peut être la connaissance limitée sur les impacts du chargement thermomécanique sur le comportement du pieu et celui du sol environnant. Cette thèse vise à étudier les aspects géotechniques des pieux géothermiques grâce aux modélisations physiques et numériques. Un modèle physique est développé afin de mieux connaitre l'interaction sol/pieu sous chargement thermomécanique. Le modèle est composé d'un pieu énergétique équipé des tubes d'échangeur de chaleur, installé dans un sol compacté. Le pieu a d'abord été installé dans un sable sec, puis dans une argile saturée ; il a ensuite été chargé mécaniquement et soumis à des cycles thermiques. L'effet de la charge mécanique, du nombre de cycles thermiques et du type de sol a été étudié. Les résultats montrent la génération de tassements irréversibles au cours des cycles thermiques, dont la quantité augmente avec l'augmentation de la charge en têtes du pieu. La pression totale dans le sol à proximité de la surface du pieu ne change pas par refroidissement et chauffage, tandis que la pression totale au-dessous du pieu augmente progressivement à mesure que les cycles thermiques poursuivent. Les expériences montrent aussi l'évolution des profils de la force axiale avec la température ; la force axiale dans le pieu augmente pendant le refroidissement et diminue pendant l'échauffement. Les comportements au cisaillement du sol (mêmes sols que ceux utilisés dans la première partie) ainsi que de l'interface sol/béton ont été évalués à différentes températures. Pour ce faire, un appareil de cisaillement conventionnel a été équipé d'un système de contrôle de température. Le sol (et l'interface sol/béton) a été soumis à une gamme de contraintes relativement faibles. La consolidation thermique a été effectuée selon un protocole particulier. Il a été observé que l'angle de frottement et la cohésion de matériaux utilisés ne changent pas sensiblement avec température. L'étude numérique a débuté par la simulation d'essais existants dans la littérature sur des pieux énergétiques en appliquant une méthode simplifiée via un code de calcul basé sur la méthode des éléments finis et assez répandu dans la profession. Le changement de la température est simulé en imposant au pieu des déformations volumétriques calculées à partir du coefficient de dilatation thermique du matériau. La méthode prédit correctement le comportement de certains pieux énergétiques à grande échelle en termes de contrainte axiale et de déplacement en tête du pieu. Les résultats mettent en évidence le rôle important joué par le changement de volume du pieu induit par les variations thermiques sur son comportement mécanique. Dans un second temps, un autre code de calcul offrant la possibilité d'inclure les effets thermique a été utilisé pour la modélisation des essais effectués auparavant sur le modèle physique. Ainsi, en comparant aux modélisations numériques précédemment expliquées, le changement de volume du sol induit par les variations de température est également pris en compte. Les résultats numériques et expérimentaux sont ainsi comparés. On en déduit que le modèle numérique est capable de prédire le comportement des pieux sous chargement purement mécanique. En outre, en simulant des essais thermomécaniques, une bonne estimation du transfert thermique dans le sol est obtenue. En ce qui concerne le comportement mécanique du pieu au cours de cycles thermiques, le modèle numérique prédit bien le tassement progressif du pieu. Cependant, en termes de répartition de la force axiale, on obtient des résultats contradictoires / Energy pile efficiency has been tested and validated by numerous studies from environmental and energy-related points of view until now. Nevertheless, energy pile technology is still more or less unknown and rarely applied in construction, especially in France compared to other European countries. The chief reason for this lack of attention might be the limited knowledge of the impact of the coupled thermo-mechanical loading on the behaviour of the pile and that of the surrounding soil. This thesis aims to study the geotechnical aspects of energy piles through physical modelling and some numerical investigations. A physical model is developed in order to better identify the soil/pile interaction under thermo-mechanical loading. The model is made up of a small pile equiped with a heat exchanger loop embedded in compacted soil. The pile was once installed in dry sand and then in saturated clay; it was then loaded mechanically and was subjected to thermal cycles. The effect of mechanical load value, number of thermal cycles and soil type is studied. The results show the appearance of irreversible settlements during thermal cycles, whose quantity increases as the pile head load increases. Total pressure in the soil close to the pile surface does not change by cooling and heating, while total pressure below the pile increases gradually as thermal cycles proceed. This is in accordance with the permanent downward movement of the pile within thermal cycles. Experiments also show the evolution of axial force profiles with temperature, axial force in the pile increases by cooling and decreases by heating. In another part of the experimental work, we focused on the soil/pile interface. The shear behaviour of the soil (the same as the soils used above) and that of the soil/concrete interface was evaluated at different temperatures. To do this, a conventional shear apparatus was equipped with a temperature control system. Soil (and soil/concrete interface) was subjected to a rather low range of stress. Thermal consolidation was performed according to a special protocol. It was observed that the soil friction angle and cohesion do not change considerably relative to temperature. The numerical study was initiated by simulating existing tests in the literature on energy piles through a finite element code well-known to engineers, applying a simplified method. The thermal load was simulated by imposing volumetric strains calculated from the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material on the pile. The method successfully simulates the behaviour of some full-scale energy piles in terms of axial strain and pile head displacement. The results highlight the important role played by the pile thermal volume change on the mechanical behaviour of the energy pile under various thermo-mechanical loadings. In the second stage, another numerical code with the possibility of including temperature effects was used for modelling the tests formerly performed on the physical model. Thus, compared to the first numerical attempts, the soil thermal volume change is also taken into account. The numerical results were compared with the experimental ones obtained from physical modelling. It was deduced that the numerical model could simulate correctly the pile behaviour under purely mechanical loading. Also, simulating thermo-mechanical tests, a good estimation of heat conduction in the soil was achieved numerically. Regarding the mechanical behaviour of the pile under thermal cycles, the numerical model adequately predicts the gradual ratcheting of the pile as observed in the experiments. However in terms of axial force distribution in the pile, the results from numerical modelling are different from the physical one

[EN] Several efforts have been made in experimental and theoretical research about shear to understand all the variables that influence the phenomenon. Nowadays, however, due to its complexity, the shear performance of structural concrete elements, especially those without any traditional transversal reinforcement, continue with no clear explanation of the problem. Uncertainty about the problem grows when new variables like fibres are incorporated into the shear study. Research works have demonstrated the effectiveness of steel fibre in improving the mechanical properties of concrete elements. Experimental results reveal that steel fibres have proven effective in improving shear resistance, and they confer some concrete elements more ductility. In adequate amounts, steel fibres can completely or partially substitute traditional shear reinforcements. This is why international codes have included some requirements to take into account the action of fibres on the shear response of concrete elements. However, most recommendations and requirements for steel fibre-reinforced concrete (SFRC) were originally created. New fibres with different materials properties and shapes, such as macrosynthetic fibres, are now available on the market. These fibres, some of which are made of polypropylene, are an alternative in the construction industry given their properties and final cost. Initially, polypropylene fibres were used to control shrinkage cracking. Nevertheless, in the last decade the chemical industry has created larger fibres with better surface shapes, which allows polypropylene fibres to meet the requirements of international codes so they can be used in structural elements. Within this framework, the present PhD thesis aims to contribute to knowledge about fibre reinforced concrete (FRC), especially to study the effectiveness of polypropylene fibres when used as shear reinforcement. For this purpose, a literature review of the material, polypropylene fibre-reinforced concrete (PFRC) and its structural applications is first carried out. This study also discusses the parameters that affect the shear behaviour of traditional concrete and FRC. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of polypropylene fibres in shear, three experimental campaigns are presented. Each campaign represents a different level of study. The first corresponds to the material level, where the shear behaviour of PFRC is evaluated by push-off specimens. The second level involves studying shear in real scale elements. For this purpose, shear critical slender beams were manufactured and tested. The last level corresponds to real application of polypropylene fibres to act as shear reinforcement. In this campaign, deep hollow core slabs, with real sections and supports conditions, were tested. At each level, the shear behaviour of PFRC was evaluated against control reinforced concrete specimens, which were also tested during each campaign. / [ES] Varias investigaciones experimentales y teóricas han sido realizadas para entender el comportamiento a cortante de elementos de hormigón y sus variables. Sin embargo, hoy en día debido a la complejidad del tema, el comportamiento a cortante de elementos de hormigón armado y en especial aquellos que no tienen refuerzo transversal, continúan sin tener una explicación clara. Por otro lado, esta complejidad del cortante aumenta cuando nuevas variables, como las fibras, se incorporan al estudio. Investigaciones han demostrado la efectividad de las fibras de acero para mejorar las propiedades mecánicas de hormigón. Según resultados experimentales, la fibra de acero mejora la resistencia cortante y ductilidad de ciertos elementos. Y en cantidades adecuadas, la fibra puede sustituir total o parcialmente los refuerzos tradicionales de cortante. Es así que varios códigos internacionales han incluido requisitos para tener a las fibras en la respuesta estructural de elementos de hormigón. Sin embargo, estos requerimientos se han creado originalmente para el hormigón reforzado con fibra de acero (Steel fibre-reinforced concrete -SFRC). Nuevas fibras con diferentes materiales y formas, como las fibras macro-sintéticas, han sido introducidas en el mercado. Estas fibras, también llamadas fibras de polipropileno o poliolefina, son una alternativa en la construcción debido a su propiedades y costo final. Inicialmente, las fibras de polipropileno eran usadas únicamente en el hormigón para controlar la fisuración por retracción. Sin embargo, en la última década la industria química ha desarrollado fibras más grandes y con mejores prestaciones de adherencia, que permiten a estas fibras cumplir con requisitos para ser utilizadas estructuralmente. En este contexto, la presente tesis pretende ser una contribución al conocimiento sobre el hormigón reforzado con fibras (Fibre-reinforced concrete - FRC), especialmente en la efectividad de las fibras de polipropileno como refuerzo a cortante. Para esto, primero se realiza un estudio bibliográfico del hormigón reforzado con fibra de polipropileno (PFRC) como material y sus aplicaciones estructurales. Este estudio también tratará sobre los parámetros que afectan el comportamiento a cortante del hormigón tradicional y hormigón reforzado con fibras. Para evaluar la efectividad de las fibras de polipropileno en el cortante, se realizarán tres campañas experimentales. Cada campaña representa un nivel de estudio diferente. El primero es a nivel material en donde se evalúa el comportamiento a cortante a través de especímenes tipo Push-off. El segundo nivel, corresponde al estudio del cortante en elementos a escala real. Para esto se fabrican y ensayan vigas esbeltas críticas a cortante. El último nivel corresponde a una aplicación real de fibras de polipropileno actuando como refuerzo cortante. En esta campaña, se fabrican y ensayan placas alveolares de gran canto con secciones y condiciones de apoyos reales. / [CA] Diverses investigacions experimentals i teòriques han estat realitzades per entendre el comportament a tallant d'elements de formigó i les seues variables. No obstant això, hui en dia a causa de la complexitat del tema, el comportament a tallant d'elements de formigó armat i especialment aquells que no tenen reforç transversal, continuen sense tindre una explicació clara. D'altra banda, aquesta complexitat del tallant augmenta quan noves variables, com les fibres, s'incorporen a l'estudi. Investigacions han demostrat l'efectivitat de les fibres d'acer per a millorar les propietats mecàniques del formigó. Segons resultats experimentals, les fibres d'acer milloren la resistència a tallant i la ductilitat de certs elements. A més, en quantitats adequades, les fibres poden substituir total o parcialment els reforços tradicionals de tallant. És així que diversos codis internacionals han inclòs requisits per a tindre amb compte la resposta estructural de les fibres en els elements de formigó. No obstant això, aquests requeriments s'han creat originalment per al formigó reforçat amb fibres d'acer (Steel fibre-reinforced concrete -SFRC). Noves fibres amb diferents materials i formes, com les fibres macro-sintètiques, han estat introduïdes al mercat. Aquestes fibres, també anomenades fibres de polipropilè o poliolefina, són una alternativa a la construcció a causa de les seues propietats i cost final. Inicialment, les fibres de polipropilè eren usades únicament en el formigó per controlar la fissuració per retracció. No obstant això, en l'última dècada, la industria química ha desenvolupat fibres més grans i amb millors prestacions d'adherència, que permeten a aquestes fibres complir amb requisits per a ser utilitzades estructuralment. En aquest context, la present tesi pretén ser una contribució al coneixement sobre el formigó reforçat amb fibres (Fibre-reinforced concrete - FRC), especialment en l'efectivitat de les fibres de polipropilè com a reforç a tallant. Per això, primer es realitza un estudi bibliogràfic del formigó reforçat amb fibres de polipropilè (PFRC) com a material i les seues plicacions estructurals. Aquest estudi també tractarà sobre els paràmetres que afecten el comportament a tallant del formigó tradicional i del formigó reforçat amb fibres. Per avaluar l'efectivitat de les fibres de polipropilè en el tallant, es realitzaran tres campanyes experimentals. Cada campanya representa un nivell d'estudi diferent. El primer és a nivell material on s'avalua el comportament a tallant a través d'espècimens tipus Push-off. El segon nivell, correspon a l'estudi del tallant en elements a escala real. Per això es fabriquen i assagen bigues esveltes crítiques a tallant. L'últim nivell correspon a una aplicació real de fibres de polipropilè actuant com a reforç a tallant. En aquesta campanya, es fabriquen i assagen plaques alveolars de gran cantell amb seccions i condicions de suports reals. / Ortiz Navas, FR. (2020). Effectiveness of polypropylene fibres as shear reinforcement in structural elements [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/153147

The shear behaviour of rough rock joints was investigated by both laboratory testing and numerical simulation. The most powerful servo-controlled direct shear box apparatus in the world with normal forces up to 1000 kN, shear loading up to 800 kN and frequencies up to 40 Hz under full load was used to investigate the shear strength of schistose rock blocks with dimensions of up to 350 x 200 x 160 mm in length, width and height, respectively. The experiments were performed to study the behaviour of rough rock joints under constant normal load, constant normal stiffness and dynamic boundary conditions. The joint surface of rock specimen was scanned 3-dimensional at the initial stage before shearing by new 3D optical-scanning equipment. The 3D-scanner data were used to estimate the joint roughness coefficient (JRC) and to reconstruct rough surface of rock discontinuities in numerical models. Three dimensional numerical models were developed using FLAC3D to study the macro and micromechanical shear behaviour of the joints. Numerical simulation results were compared to experimental results. Three dimensional characteristic of the joint surface including micro-slope angle, aperture, contact area and normal stress distribution were determined and analyzed.

The shear behaviour of rough rock joints was investigated by both laboratory testing and numerical simulation. The most powerful servo-controlled direct shear box apparatus in the world with normal forces up to 1000 kN, shear loading up to 800 kN and frequencies up to 40 Hz under full load was used to investigate the shear strength of schistose rock blocks with dimensions of up to 350 x 200 x 160 mm in length, width and height, respectively. The experiments were performed to study the behaviour of rough rock joints under constant normal load, constant normal stiffness and dynamic boundary conditions. The joint surface of rock specimen was scanned 3-dimensional at the initial stage before shearing by new 3D optical-scanning equipment. The 3D-scanner data were used to estimate the joint roughness coefficient (JRC) and to reconstruct rough surface of rock discontinuities in numerical models. Three dimensional numerical models were developed using FLAC3D to study the macro and micromechanical shear behaviour of the joints. Numerical simulation results were compared to experimental results. Three dimensional characteristic of the joint surface including micro-slope angle, aperture, contact area and normal stress distribution were determined and analyzed.