This thesis recognizes the value of using a variety of perspectives to study the history of an ethnic minority group. The history of some groups is lacking in insider perspectives. I have attempted to add balance to the existing accounts by using an oral history approach to describe the experiences of the Sikhs living in British Columbia from 1920-1947. I am an insider, a Sikh whose grandfather was one of the original pioneers who came in the first wave of immigration in the 1904-1908 time period. These people are no longer with us, but some of their wives and children are still available to share their history with future generations. I interviewed and recorded 24 individual histories. From these I have formed a composite picture of the Sikh community in British Columbia from 1920-1947. Beginning with descriptions of social, political and cultural conditions in India and Canada at the time of arrival, we follow them through the important stages of their lives in their adopted land. They describe the journey over, settling in, adaptations, work, social life, the fight for rights, and the role of their temple and religion. We see the events and circumstances that eventually led to the Sikhs being able to call Canada their home. The many photographs, letters and documents give further insights into the lives of this distinctive group of Canadians. / Education, Faculty of / Educational Studies (EDST), Department of / Graduate

Housing needs for the elderly are a function of several processes accompanying aging. In the case of visible, immigrant seniors, additional factors such as ethnic origin and their length of stay in Canada come into play. Sikhs are a predominant and one of the fastest growing sectors in the Canadian multicultural mosaic. This visible ethnic group has a long history of immigration to British Columbia. Canadian immigration policies have shaped the character (age-sex distribution, occupation, education, geographic location) of the Sikh community over the period of their immigration history. Immigration trends, acculturation of the Canadian-born generation, changing family patterns and the efforts of the community to maintain its culture, religion and language, all shape the housing needs of Sikh seniors in the Canadian context. At present, the demographic profile of Canadian Sikhs reveals that the majority of them are in the 20-50 age group. This profile combined with the influx of new immigrants including aged parents and other relatives, indicates an imminent increase in the number of Sikh elderly in Canada. This study traces the assimilation of this community in Vancouver, and examines the suitability of housing options available to the mainstream Canadian elderly, for the Sikh elderly. A particular example considered for the purpose of this thesis is the small-scale congregate housing (Abbeyfield) alternative. Information from literature and a clustered survey of elderly Sikhs in Vancouver city suggest the emerging need for an alternative to their traditional housing arrangements. Prospective residents for alternative housing are likely to be elderly, widowed Sikh males. For them, the Abbeyfield option due to its domestic scale and adaptability, has been viewed as a viable solution. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Architecture and Landscape Architecture (SALA), School of / Graduate

There are two themes that are explored in this thesis. The first is an examination of the process of acculturation, defined here as the process of learning skills and strategies native to another group. The second is comparative and examines the causes for the relative success that the Portuguese had in learning to accommodate and be accepted in Canada. By the same token the sources of acculturative stress for the Sikhs will be identified. The two groups are comparable along several dimensions such as age, education, skills, knowledge of English on arrival and so on. Learning to be effective in Canada means understanding and acting appropriately in given contexts. The spheres that I have identified as important are the workplace and the community in which they live. The other spheres that come under scrutiny as a result of the spillover of public activities and experiences are the family, and the sphere of religious beliefs and practices. The workplace, I argue, is a central institution wherein acculturation is imperative. Secondly, the establishment of individuals in the community is a crucial factor. While the formation of an ethnic enclave might serve as a support system for newcomers, it also isolates and separates them from others. The Sikh definition of identity is hierarchical, with religion providing an anchorage for all other spheres such as the family, caste, village, and occupation. In sort, individuals did not experience life activities as differentiated or unrelated. Given the contexts of ambivalence and hostility they perceived and/or experienced in Canada, the acquisition of new forms of thought were neither seen as a challenge nor a necessity; but as a threat to their identity. The Portuguese model, on the other hand, recognizes the distinction between public and private lives. To them being "Portuguese" and/or "Catholic" are primarily private matters. Also, by and large they gave importance to individual achievement over corporate identity. To them, acculturation and ethnic identity were complementary modes for the definition of themselves within the Canadian context. / Arts, Faculty of / Sociology, Department of / Graduate