There has been considerable debate in the gender and development literature on income earning opportunities and their empowerment potential for women, particularly rural women, in developing countries. In this, a critical question for the empowerment of women is, does access to resources, for example, enterprise income, translate into power and its various manifestations for women within their households? This study argues that access to resources alone is not a sufficient prerequisite for empowerment. Improved access to resources will only transform into empowerment outcomes if women are able to exercise their agency to achieve desired outcomes. The study, therefore, highlights the centrality of agency in the empowerment process. Agency acts as a link between resources on the one hand and empowerment outcomes on the other. Furthermore, the relationship between agency and empowerment is dialectical as the two concepts under investigation are constitutive of each other. Put differently, enhanced agency results in empowerment, which in turn feeds back to increased agency, leading to further empowerment. Hence, empowerment is presented as both an outcome of the exercise of agency and a driver of agency. The study frames the question of agency and empowerment within feminist theory of agency - Western, African and South African. Using a case study of the Ikhowe Craft Group in rural Eshowe, the study examines the role of agency in the empowerment process for rural women crafters in two ways. Firstly, through the feminist political ecology approach, it evaluates their ability to access the natural resource, Cyperus spp. for use in craft making. Secondly, it examines their individual agency within their households and their collective agency in the Craft Group. Within the overarching feminist research paradigm, a mixed methods research methodology was used, which entailed embedding quantitative data collection and presentation within qualitative research techniques. The empirical evidence suggests that the women crafters’ agency was enacted and empowerment achieved within a context of enablement and constraints, with gender culture and traditional leadership emerging as significant variables that mediate the rural women’s agency within their households and in accessing the raw material for their craft. Gender and culture intersect to influence how the women construct their identities, roles and responsibilities within their households. Despite the constraints of social structure, the women emerge as important agents of social change in their households. In addition, the study has revealed the private sphere to be a significant site of both the women crafters’ agency and subordination. Hence, any conceptualization of women’s agency and empowerment, particularly that of rural women, needs to be context-specific to be able to adequately capture the realities of the women that impinge on their ability to act. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

Many believe that small and medium natural resource-based enterprises (NRBEs) provide a vision to reduce poverty in the Third World’s rural communities and households. As a result, new rural enterprises should be created and existing ones reinforced within a framework of sustainable livelihoods that target all appropriate members in the communities. This study investigates the impact of the natural resource based enterprises income on the rural livelihoods in the households using a rural natural-based craft enterprise (using reeds, Cyperus spp, as raw material), as a case study, Ikhowe Craft Enterprise, situated in small town called Eshowe in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.. In designing this study, a combination of both qualitative and quantitative research methods was employed. This was influenced by the aim and the type of data required for the study. The said methods were (a) semi-structured interviews for producers (a questionnaire had a pre-determined mix set of both open-ended and closed-ended questions); (b) interviews for management were conducted with a purely qualitative questionnaire which consisted of only structured and open-ended questions; (c) field observations, and (d) a review of secondary materials (administrative records). Apart from how derived income impacts on the participants, data required also included performance of the enterprise, access to markets, support available, and livelihood analysis of the participants households which included issues such as households’ economies and exploring extent of, and reasons for diversification, and challenges both the enterprise and participants’ households face daily in relation to making a living. The results show that there was a significant increase in business annual turnover and producers’ earnings between 2003 and 2005. In 2003, about 50% of the producers earned less than R1000 per year, while in 2005 only 3% earned less than R1000 per year. Despite the total annual increase of earnings and the significant contribution of craft income to producers’ households’ incomes, individual earnings varied considerably amongst the producers and as a result the economic impact was also variable. Other than craft, strategies such as government grants enhanced livelihood diversification in the case study. However, lack of understanding of basic business principles and skills amongst both the crafters and management posed threats to the sustainability of the enterprise. The income derived from the NRBE activity, especially since it is based on natural resources with low economic value (reeds) was found to have both diversifying and supplementing effects on different producers’ other strategies. Although, the enterprise is achieving growth, there is a concern and a need to measure the future sustainability of the enterprise. In addition there is a need to improve the producers’ basic business skills and business management competency / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.