This quantitative study is designed to examine possible cross-national differences between a Zambian and a South Africa student sample on specific aspects of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory in relation to software piracy. Software piracy is when people make copies of the computer software without permission or they load software onto more machines than the licensed agreement says they can. A questionnaire composed of previously developed scales measuring attitudes, social norms, piracy intentions, incentives, deterrents, self-efficacy and moral disengagement within the context of software piracy was collated. During economics classes in a major University in Zambia and one in South Africa 150 copies of the questionnaire were handed out. The South African sample consisted of 37 males and 34 females all aged between 18-28, 44 were in 2nd year and 27 were in 3rd year. The Zambian sample consisted of 57 males and 12 females, 53 were between 18-28, 12 between 29-38 and 4 between 39-49, 27 were in their 3rd years of study and 42 in 4th year. The scales had adequate reliabilities (.60 to .89). There was sufficient evidence to suggest that there is a statistical difference between the two countries on attitudes and social norms. The South African sample had more positive attitudes and more favourable social norms than Zambia. South Africa reported higher extrinsic motivators (monetary, reinforcement and reciprocal exchange, and self-evaluative and reciprocal exchange) and Zambia reported higher intrinsic motivators and being deterred by the threat of harsh punishments. There was also sufficient evidence to suggest that attitudes, social norms and self-efficacy predict (in order of best predictors) piracy intention in both samples. Moral disengagement did not act as a moderator or mediator between attitudes, social norms and self-efficacy and piracy intention in either sample. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Bandura s (1986) Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) embraces an interactional model of causation in which environmental events, personal factors and behaviour all operate as interacting determinants of each other. This study aims to develop a model that predicts and explains incidents of unauthorised copying of software using SCT. To do this, the current study explored the relationship between attitudes, self-efficacy and social norms, with an individual s intention to copy software illegally. In addition, moral disengagement was considered as a mediator of the relationship. The study was conducted within one medium-sized South African Information Technology (IT) organisation, and one department of a large South African production organisation, within the surrounding Johannesburg area. In addition, a sample was also collected from four Zambian banking industries. The researcher received responses from 217 participants from across the organisations. Firstly the relationship between attitudes, self-efficacy and social norms with regard to intentions were analysed, by using correlations. The results of the correlation indicated that there is a significant positive relationship between each of the variables and intention to the unauthorised copying of software. The model predicted by the researcher is then tested empirically according to Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). The results of the SEM presented the researcher with four models, which will each be discussed independently, as well as suggesting the model that best fits the data. A discussion of the findings is presented, in addition to the limitations of the study and possible recommendations for improvement.

Background: Large components for athletes are nutrition, training and recovery. These components are subjects all by them selves in all kind of media. That woke my interest to find out more about the connections between nutrition, training and recovery and how much knowledge athletes have of them together. Objectives: The purpose of this study is to investigate how athletes feelings and experience of nutrition, training and recovery. Method: A qualitative approach was used to investigate athletes eye on nutrition, training and recovery. Ten interviews were done face to face and notes was taken since no recording were done. Results: The results of the study shows that athletes don’t have experience of nutrition, training and recovery together. Athletes have knowledge of nutrition, training and recovery one by one. The study showed the athletes the dependency of nutrition, training and recovery together. The athletes did all the components by themselves but had not the knowledge of how big the dependencies was between the components. The athletes wanted to learn more about the dependencies to take advantage of the components in their own training.

Continually improving population health in the context of increased life expectancy challenges the assumption that aging invariably leads to significant physical decline. Currently, there is a perception that physical function and hence, independence, can be maintained well into later life (Ory, Hoffman, Hawkins, Sanner & Mockenhaupt, 2003). Given the growing proportion of older adults in many industrialized nations, it is imperative to consider possible factors that influence behaviour, which may in turn contribute to functional losses that have hitherto been attributed to aging. For example, pervasive ageist stereotypes may play a role in reducing older adults’ opportunities to independently perform physical tasks (i.e. removal of difficult or challenging physical tasks from older adult residences; younger individuals insisting on physical help that is unneeded) so that ability is gradually compromised by disuse. This study explores the potential for such reduced opportunity among community-dwelling older adults using a questionnaire-based methodology and hypothetical stimulus scenarios. In the scenarios, participants’ mature children offer the older adults unsolicited help with two functional tasks: rising from a sofa and grocery shopping. The 52 study participants (mean age = 78.4 ± 6.0 years) were each asked to report their independence preference, anticipated affective responses, behavioural intentions, self-efficacy for relevant physical skills, relation-inferred self-efficacy (RISE), attribution for why the help was offered, and perceived benefits of accepting and declining the help. Using a Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) framework, individuals with higher self-efficacy, stronger preference for independence, or more perceived benefits of declining relative to those of accepting help were expected to be more likely to intend to decline assistance. In addition to being related to intentions, these factors, along with lower RISE beliefs, were expected to be associated with greater negative affect. Finally, RISE was anticipated to be directly proportional to self-efficacy and thus, attribution of the offered help to physical (versus social) reasons was hypothesized to relate to lower self-efficacy and RISE. Primary study hypotheses were generally not supported, with a few exceptions. First, as hypothesized, those who perceived more benefits associated with declining help were more likely to decline and less likely to accept the offered help (p ≤ 0.005). Second, the more perceived benefits associated with declining help (relative to those associated with accepting help), the less total positive affect older adults reported (r ≤ -0.31, p ≤ 0.02). Third, individuals who had higher self-efficacy also reported higher RISE (r ≥ 0.34, p ≤ 0.01). Finally, those who made physical attributions for the offer of help reported lower RISE (p ≤ 0.009), and lower shopping self-efficacy (p = 0.004). Secondary analyses provided some insight into the lack of support for study hypotheses regarding the receipt of unsolicited assistance. For example, both high self-efficacy beliefs (mean = 85.1 ± 15.8% for rising and 91.5 ± 11.2% for shopping) and low TUG times (mean = 12.2 ± 4.7s) suggested that the sample was particularly high-functioning. This would help to explain why self-efficacy was not found to be significantly related to participant intentions to accept help. Another explanation for this finding is the influence of social factors considered by older adults in these helping situations. Participant intentions could have been based on anticipated social rather than physical benefits. This rationale was supported by high rates of selection for socially-relevant perceived benefits of receiving help. Further examination also confirmed that participants generally reported very low levels of total negative affect. This would partially account for the absence of a relationship between perceived benefits and negative affect, even though the former was shown to be correlated with total positive affect. Despite raising as many questions as it answers, the present study succeeds in illustrating the perceptions of higher functioning older adults in situations where physical help is offered to them. Although these participants would not require any help with the physical tasks presented, on average, older adults indicated that they would likely accept the offered assistance approximately half of the time. When the findings of the two sets of analyses are considered, they suggest that much research is needed to understand the perspective of older adults in helping situations. Assumptions about older adults’ reactions to receiving assistance with physical tasks may not be straightforward. Having the ability to function independently may not necessarily mean that older adults refuse assistance. Like younger adults, they may interpret the social situation in terms of a variety of outcomes. Indeed, if researchers do not consider complex interpretations for how older adults function in regard to physical independence, they may be letting personal ageism shape their research. Consequently, there is cause to pursue further research in this underserved area of investigation into the perceptions and actions of older adults. Future studies in this vein may make use of the lessons learned from this exploratory investigation.

Continually improving population health in the context of increased life expectancy challenges the assumption that aging invariably leads to significant physical decline. Currently, there is a perception that physical function and hence, independence, can be maintained well into later life (Ory, Hoffman, Hawkins, Sanner & Mockenhaupt, 2003). Given the growing proportion of older adults in many industrialized nations, it is imperative to consider possible factors that influence behaviour, which may in turn contribute to functional losses that have hitherto been attributed to aging. For example, pervasive ageist stereotypes may play a role in reducing older adults’ opportunities to independently perform physical tasks (i.e. removal of difficult or challenging physical tasks from older adult residences; younger individuals insisting on physical help that is unneeded) so that ability is gradually compromised by disuse. This study explores the potential for such reduced opportunity among community-dwelling older adults using a questionnaire-based methodology and hypothetical stimulus scenarios. In the scenarios, participants’ mature children offer the older adults unsolicited help with two functional tasks: rising from a sofa and grocery shopping. The 52 study participants (mean age = 78.4 ± 6.0 years) were each asked to report their independence preference, anticipated affective responses, behavioural intentions, self-efficacy for relevant physical skills, relation-inferred self-efficacy (RISE), attribution for why the help was offered, and perceived benefits of accepting and declining the help. Using a Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) framework, individuals with higher self-efficacy, stronger preference for independence, or more perceived benefits of declining relative to those of accepting help were expected to be more likely to intend to decline assistance. In addition to being related to intentions, these factors, along with lower RISE beliefs, were expected to be associated with greater negative affect. Finally, RISE was anticipated to be directly proportional to self-efficacy and thus, attribution of the offered help to physical (versus social) reasons was hypothesized to relate to lower self-efficacy and RISE. Primary study hypotheses were generally not supported, with a few exceptions. First, as hypothesized, those who perceived more benefits associated with declining help were more likely to decline and less likely to accept the offered help (p ≤ 0.005). Second, the more perceived benefits associated with declining help (relative to those associated with accepting help), the less total positive affect older adults reported (r ≤ -0.31, p ≤ 0.02). Third, individuals who had higher self-efficacy also reported higher RISE (r ≥ 0.34, p ≤ 0.01). Finally, those who made physical attributions for the offer of help reported lower RISE (p ≤ 0.009), and lower shopping self-efficacy (p = 0.004). Secondary analyses provided some insight into the lack of support for study hypotheses regarding the receipt of unsolicited assistance. For example, both high self-efficacy beliefs (mean = 85.1 ± 15.8% for rising and 91.5 ± 11.2% for shopping) and low TUG times (mean = 12.2 ± 4.7s) suggested that the sample was particularly high-functioning. This would help to explain why self-efficacy was not found to be significantly related to participant intentions to accept help. Another explanation for this finding is the influence of social factors considered by older adults in these helping situations. Participant intentions could have been based on anticipated social rather than physical benefits. This rationale was supported by high rates of selection for socially-relevant perceived benefits of receiving help. Further examination also confirmed that participants generally reported very low levels of total negative affect. This would partially account for the absence of a relationship between perceived benefits and negative affect, even though the former was shown to be correlated with total positive affect. Despite raising as many questions as it answers, the present study succeeds in illustrating the perceptions of higher functioning older adults in situations where physical help is offered to them. Although these participants would not require any help with the physical tasks presented, on average, older adults indicated that they would likely accept the offered assistance approximately half of the time. When the findings of the two sets of analyses are considered, they suggest that much research is needed to understand the perspective of older adults in helping situations. Assumptions about older adults’ reactions to receiving assistance with physical tasks may not be straightforward. Having the ability to function independently may not necessarily mean that older adults refuse assistance. Like younger adults, they may interpret the social situation in terms of a variety of outcomes. Indeed, if researchers do not consider complex interpretations for how older adults function in regard to physical independence, they may be letting personal ageism shape their research. Consequently, there is cause to pursue further research in this underserved area of investigation into the perceptions and actions of older adults. Future studies in this vein may make use of the lessons learned from this exploratory investigation.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2008. / Title from first page of PDF file. Includes bibliographical references (p. 231-243).

Thesis (M.S.)--Ohio State University, 2009. / Title from first page of PDF file. Includes vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 50-53).

No description available.

The depiction of gender in advertising is a topic of continuous discussion and research. The present study adds to past findings with an updated look at how men are represented in U.S. advertising media and the real effects these portrayals have on the male population under the theoretical framework of hegemony and social cognitive theory. This research is triangulated with a textual analysis of the ads found in the March 2013 editions of four popular print publications and three focus group sessions separated by sex (two all-male, one all-female), each of which is composed of a racially diverse group of undergraduate journalism and communications students from a large Southwestern university. The results of the textual analysis reveal little ethnic or physical diversity among male figures in advertising and distinguish six main profiles of masculinity, the most frequent of which is described as the "sophisticated man." The focus groups identify depictions of extreme muscularity and stereotypical male incompetence as the most negative representations, while humorous and hyperbolic portrayals of sexual prowess and hyper-masculinity are viewed positively as effective means of marketing to men.

Previous research has shown that individuals who are more religious use alcohol less than those who are less religious. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the relationship between various dimensions of religion and alcohol use, including an examination of the potential mediating role of social cognitive constructs in that relationship. It was hypothesized that: 1) Individuals who were more religious would drink alcohol less often, consume fewer drinks per drinking day, and experience fewer alcohol-related problems than those who were less religious. 2) Individuals who utilized more self-regulatory strategies, had higher self-efficacy, had less positive and more negative expectancies of alcohol use, and had standards of more moderate alcohol use would report less frequent alcohol use, fewer drinks per drinking day, and fewer alcohol-related problems. 3) Individuals who reported greater religiosity would utilize drinking self-regulatory strategies more frequently, have higher self-efficacy for avoiding heavy alcohol use, have less positive and more negative outcome expectancies regarding alcohol use, and have standards of more moderate alcohol use. 4) The relationships between the dimensions of religiosity and the alcohol use indices would be mediated by the social cognitive constructs. Three hundred and thirty-four college students completed a number of self-report questionnaires assessing alcohol use, religiosity dimensions, and social cognitive constructs. Results were consistent with, and expanded upon, previous research by demonstrating that various dimensions of religiosity were inversely related to, and also multivariate predictors of, the quantity and frequency of alcohol use and the experience of alcohol-related problems in a sample of college students. Findings further suggested that this relationship was completely mediated by several social cognitive constructs including self-efficacy, outcome expectancies, internal standards regarding alcohol use, and the use of self-regulatory strategies. Limitations of the study and suggestions for future research are discussed. / Ph. D.