Soil carbon storage in tropical ecosystems is important in the global carbon cycle, yet consensus is lacking on how soil organic carbon stocks are altered under anthropogenic land-use change. This thesis seeks to quantify soil carbon stocks, the associated soil carbon emissions and explores the drivers of soil respiration in managed tropical Andean lands over a 2600 m elevation gradient. It investigates: grazing and burning on high altitude montane grasslands, burning in montane forests and agriculture in premontane forests. Changes among land-uses were quantified using belowground carbon stocks, the carbon distribution among density fractions, soil carbon emissions and environmental drivers of soil respiration. Soil respiration was a good proxy of soil carbon loss in premontane pastures and montane grassland soils. The total carbon stocks on some land-uses appeared to be unaffected but the distribution of carbon within the soil had changed and even when there were no net changes in soil carbon emissions, the drivers of respiration were different. The synergistic effect of burning and grazing in montane grasslands was the most detrimental to soil carbon stocks, whereas montane forests were unaffected. In the premontane elevation, soil carbon loss was dependent on the type of agricultural practice but the succession of secondary forest allowed soil carbon to recover to similar levels measured in the mature forest. These findings highlight the fact that although land-use does not always appear to have an obvious effect on total soil carbon stocks, the loss of carbon from short-term labile pools can cause higher carbon emissions and dominate soil-atmospheric feedbacks. Furthermore, the drivers of soil respiration and the synergistic relationship between soil moisture and temperature alter under different land uses. These factors should be taken into consideration with regards to predictions of regional temperature/precipitation climate change and soil carbon management policy in order to arrive at more realistic decisions.

Soil is the world’s largest terrestrial carbon (C) sink, and is estimated to contain approximately 1600 Pg of carbon to a depth of one metre. The distribution of soil organic C (SOC) largely follows gradients similar to biomass accumulation, increasing with increasing precipitation and decreasing temperature. As a result, SOC levels are a function of inputs, dominated by plant litter contributions and rhizodeposition, and losses such as leaching, erosion and heterotrophic respiration. Therefore, changes in biomass inputs, or organic matter accumulation, will most likely also alter these levels in soils. Although the soil microbial biomass (SMB) only comprises 1-5% of soil organic matter (SOM), it is critical in organic matter decomposition and can provide an early indicator of SOM dynamics as a whole due to its faster turnover time, and hence, can be used to determine soil C dynamics under changing environmental conditions.¶ Approximately 932 million ha of land worldwide are degraded due to salinity and sodicity, usually coinciding with land available for agriculture, with salinity affecting 23% of arable land while saline-sodic soils affect a further 10%. Soils affected by salinity, that is, those soils high in soluble salts, are characterised by rising watertables and waterlogging of lower-lying areas in the landscape. Sodic soils are high in exchangeable sodium, and slake and disperse upon wetting to form massive hardsetting structures. Upon drying, sodic soils suffer from poor soil-water relations largely related to decreased permeability, low infiltration capacity and the formation of surface crusts. In these degraded areas, SOC levels are likely to be affected by declining vegetation health and hence, decreasing biomass inputs and concomitant lower levels of organic matter accumulation. Moreover, potential SOC losses can also be affected from dispersed aggregates due to sodicity and solubilisation of SOM due to salinity. However, few studies are available that unambiguously demonstrate the effect of increasing salinity and sodicity on C dynamics. This thesis describes a range of laboratory and field investigations on the effects of salinity and sodicity on SOC dynamics.¶ In this research, the effects of a range of salinity and sodicity levels on C dynamics were determined by subjecting a vegetated soil from Bevendale, New South Wales (NSW) to one of six treatments. A low, mid or high salinity solution (EC 0.5, 10 or 30 dS/m) combined with a low or high sodicity solution (SAR 1 or 30) in a factorial design was leached through a non-degraded soil in a controlled environment. Soil respiration and the SMB were measured over a 12-week experimental period. The greatest increases in SMB occurred in treatments of high-salinity high-sodicity, and high-salinity low-sodicity. This was attributed to solubilisation of SOM which provided additional substrate for decomposition for the microbial population. Thus, as salinity and sodicity increase in the field, soil C is likely to be rapidly lost as a result of increased mineralisation.¶ Gypsum is the most commonly-used ameliorant in the rehabilitation of sodic and saline-sodic soils affected by adverse soil environmental conditions. When soils were sampled from two sodic profiles in salt-scalded areas at Bevendale and Young, SMB levels and soil respiration rates measured in the laboratory were found to be low in the sodic soil compared to normal non-degraded soils. When the sodic soils were treated with gypsum, there was no change in the SMB and respiration rates. The low levels of SMB and respiration rates were due to low SOC levels as a result of little or no C input into the soils of these highly degraded landscapes, as the high salinity and high sodicity levels have resulted in vegetation death. However, following the addition of organic material to the scalded soils, in the form of coarsely-ground kangaroo grass, SMB levels and respiration rates increased to levels greater than those found in the non-degraded soil. The addition of gypsum (with organic material) gave no additional increases in the SMB.¶ The level of SOC stocks in salt-scalded, vegetated and revegetated profiles was also determined, so that the amount of SOC lost due to salinisation and sodication, and the increase in SOC following revegetation relative to the amount of SOC in a vegetated profile could be ascertained. Results showed up to three times less SOC in salt-scalded profiles compared to vegetated profiles under native pasture, while revegetation of formerly scalded areas with introduced pasture displayed SOC levels comparable to those under native pasture to a depth of 30 cm. However, SOC stocks can be underestimated in saline and sodic landscapes by setting the lower boundary at 30 cm due to the presence of waterlogging, which commonly occurs at a depth greater than 30 cm in saline and sodic landscapes as a result of the presence of high or perched watertables. These results indicate that successful revegetation of scalded areas has the potential to accumulate SOC stocks similar to those found prior to degradation.¶ The experimental results from this project indicate that in salt-affected landscapes, initial increases in salinity and sodicity result in rapid C mineralisation. Biomass inputs also decrease due to declining vegetation health, followed by further losses as a result of leaching and erosion. The remaining native SOM is then mineralised, until very low SOC stocks remain. However, the C sequestration potential in these degraded areas is high, particularly if rehabilitation efforts are successful in reducing salinity and sodicity. Soil ecosystem functions can then be restored if organic material is available as C stock and for decomposition in the form of either added organic material or inputs from vegetation when these salt-affected landscapes are revegetated.

The rate of carbon turnover in soil is a balance between the input of carbon by plants through their roots and associated fungi and the loss of carbon due to plant and microbial respiration, oxidation and leaching. Soil carbon dynamics are notoriously difficult to measure, and being able to separate total soil respiration into its autotrophic and heterotrophic components would help understanding of carbon cycling processes. Where autotrophic respiration originates from roots and their associated mycorrhizal fungi, using newly fixed carbon, and heterotrophic respiration originates from the breakdown of older soil organic matter. By calculating the δ¹³C signature of respired CO₂ (the ratio of the abundances of C isotopes ¹²C and ¹³C) it is possible to determine whether it is of heterotrophic or autotrophic origin. In this study a 6 chamber, constant CO₂ concentration measuring apparatus was developed to determine both the rate of CO₂ efflux and to collect undisturbed CO₂ samples for isotope analysis. This apparatus was tested using live soil samples with different δ¹³C values (-22 ‰ to -27 ‰) and respiration rates (2 – 8 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹) obtained from various locations in New Zealand. Testing involved taking samples using the respiration apparatus, then incubating the same samples in a bag, and then comparing the two. There was no difference between the results from the soil respiration apparatus and the bags (R²=0.96, p=0.0002). Twelve microcosms including soil and grass were extracted from a newly converted dairy farm and placed into in growth cabinets. Diurnal courses of partitioned soil respiration were made over 24 hours with constant soil temperature to eliminate temperatures effect on soil respiration. Half were then covered with 90% shade cloth for 12 days to test if a reduction in light (and therefore newly fixed carbon) would have any effect on soil respiration. There was a significant reduction in soil respiration, yet no detectable change in the δ¹³C of soil respired CO₂ under heavily shaded treatment. There was however there was a shift towards heterotrophic dominated respiration. This shows that while L. perenne is resilient to surrounding conditions it is susceptible to change if exposed to different conditions for prolonged periods of time. The use of this new technique in the field will allow improved understanding of factors effecting soil C efflux.

The relationship between temperature and soil respiration has been well explored although uncertainties remain. This thesis examined the relationship between temperature and rates of heterotrophic respiration in soils from three adjacent sub-alpine Australian vegetation types; woodland, shrubland and grassland. Temperature sensitivity of soil (Q10) has recently been a hotly debate topic, one side concluding that decomposition of recalcitrant, less labile components of soil organic matter are insensitive to temperature. Whilst others argue that there is no difference in the temperature sensitivities of labile and recalcitrant carbon pools. Robust modeling of rates of soil respiration requires characterization of the temperature response of both labile and recalcitrant pools. Laboratory incubation provides a means of characterizing the temperature response of rates of respiration whilst reducing the confounding effects encountered in the field, such as seasonal fluctuations in temperature, moisture and substrate supply. I used a novel system that allowed laboratory measurement of gas exchange in soils over a range of temperatures under controlled conditions. Measurements included CO2 efflux and O2 uptake over a range of temperatures from 5 to 40oC, characterization of temperature response and sensitivity, and respiratory quotients. Rates of heterotrophic respiration fitted both exponential and Arrhenius functions and temperature sensitivity varied and depended on the model used, vegetation type and depth in the soil profile. Long-term incubation indicated both labile and resistant pools of carbon had similar temperature sensitivities. Respiratory quotients provided a strongly predictive measure of the potential rate of decomposition of soil C, independent of the temperature response of respiration, providing a tool that may be used alongside derived parameters to help understand shifts in microbial use of C substrates. Vegetation type influenced soil chemical properties and rates of heterotrophic respiration. Rates of respiration correlated well with concentrations of carbon and nitrogen as has been previously observed, unlike previous studies however a positive correlation was observed between indices of plant available phosphorus and respiration. The soils examined were from three adjacent vegetation types formed on common geology, I concluded that vegetation type had a significant influence on soil, in contrast to the commonly held view by ecologists that soil type drives patterns in vegetation. Climatic effects such as longer, dryer hotter summer, reduced snow cover and increased incidence of extreme weather events such as frosts and bushfire are likely to drive patterns in vegetation in this region and therefore have a significant impact on carbon cycling in Sub-alpine Australian soils.

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Orientador: Newton La Scala Júnior / Coorientador: Alan Rodrigo Panosso / Coorientador: Gener Tadeu Pereira / Banca: Carlos Eduardo Pellegrino Cerri / Banca: Glauco de Souza Rolim / Resumo: A emissão de CO2 do solo (FCO2) apresenta alta variabilidade espacial, sendo devida a grande dependência espacial existente nas propriedades do solo que a influenciam. Neste estudo objetivou-se (i) caracterizar e relacionar a variabilidade e a distribuição espacial da FCO2, temperatura do solo, porosidade livre de água (PLA), teor de matéria orgânica do solo (MO) e densidade do solo (Ds), (ii) avaliar a acurácia dos resultados fornecidos pelo método da krigagem ordinária (KO) e simulação sequencial Gaussiana (SSG), e (iii) avaliar a incerteza na predição da variabilidade espacial das FCO2 e demais propriedades utilizando a SSG. O estudo foi conduzido em uma malha amostral regular de 60 x 60 m2 com 141 pontos, com espaçamento mínimo variando de 0,50 a 10 m, instalada em área de cana-de-açúcar. Nestes pontos foram avaliados a FCO2, temperatura do solo, PLA, determinadas com base na média de 07 dias de avaliação, MO e Ds. Todas as variáveis apresentaram estrutura de dependência espacial, sendo ajustados modelos Gaussianos, esféricos e exponenciais. A configuração da malha amostral e possivelmente a presença de espessa camada de resíduos da cultura sobre o solo influenciaram a estrutura de variabilidade espacial da FCO2, temperatura e MO. FCO2 apresentou correlações positivas com a MO (r = 0,25, p < 0,05) e PLA (r = 0,27, p < 0,01) e negativa com a Ds (r = - 0,41, p < 0,01). No entanto, quando os valores digitais estimados espacialmente (N=8.833) são considerados, a PLA passa a ser a principal variável responsável pelas características espaciais da FCO2, apresentando correlação de 0,26 (p < 0,01). As simulações individuais propiciaram, para todas as variáveis analisadas, melhor reprodução das funções de distribuição acumuladas (fdac), e dos variogramas em comparação... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The soil CO2 emission (FCO2) has high spatial variability, which caused due to the strong spatial dependence in soil properties that influence it. This study aimed to (i) to characterize the variability and spatial distribution of FCO2, soil temperature, air-filled pore space (AFPS), soil organic matter (OM) and soil bulk density (BD) and related properties, (ii) evaluate the accuracy of the results provided by the method of ordinary kriging (OK) and sequential Gaussian simulation (SGS), and (iii) evaluate the uncertainty in predicting the spatial variability of FCO2 and other properties using the SSG. The study was conducted on an regular sampling grid with 141 points, with spacing ranging from 0.50 to 10 m, installed in a sugarcane area. In this place were evaluated FCO2, soil temperature, AFPS, were based on the average of 07 days of evaluation, OM and BD. All variables showed spatial dependence structure, and models adjusted Gaussian, spherical and exponential. The configuration of the sampling grid and the presence of intense layer of crop residues in the soil influenced the structure of spatial variability of FCO2, temperature, and OM. The FCO2 showed positive correlations with OM (r = 0.25, p <0.05) and AFPS (r = 0.27, p <0.01) and negatively with Ds (r = - 0.41, p <0.01). However, when the estimated spatially values are considered, the AFPS becomes the main variable responsible for the spatial characteristics of FCO2, showing correlation of 0.26 (p <0.01). The individual simulations led to all variables, better reproduction of the cumulative distribution functions (cdf), and variograms compared to OK and E-type estimate. The analysis results show strong similarities between the E-type estimates to those generated by the procedure of OK. The major uncertainties in predicting FCO2 were associated with areas with the highest... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

Orientador: Newton La Scala Júnior / Coorientador: Alan Rodrigo Panosso / Coorientador: Gener Tadeu Pereira / Banca: José Garcia Vivas Miranda / Banca: Zigomar Menezes de Souza / Resumo: A emissão de CO2 do solo (FCO2) é influenciada por processos físicos, químicos e biológicos que afetam a produção de CO2 no interior do solo e o seu transporte para a atmosfera, variando no tempo e no espaço em função das condições ambientais e do manejo agrícola da área. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a correlação existente entre os padrões de estrutura de variabilidade espacial e temporal de FCO2 e atributos do solo, em área de cana-de-açúcar sob sistema de manejo cana crua, por meio de dimensão fractal (DF), derivada a partir de variogramas isotrópicos e anisotrópicos em diferentes escalas espaciais. A área experimental constituiu-se de uma malha regular de 60 × 60 m contendo 141 pontos espaçados em distâncias mínimas que variaram de 0,5 a 10 m. A emissão de CO2, temperatura e umidade do solo foram avaliadas durante 7 dias, sendo determinados os atributos físico e químicos do solo em amostragem na profundidade de 0,0 a 0,1 m. A média de FCO2 variou de 1,26 a 1,77 μmol m-2 s-1 ao longo dos dias, com dependência temporal na média e longa escalas, em alcances superiores a 20 m. Apesar do comportamento isotrópico observado para FCO2, seus valores de DF, calculados para diferentes direções, evidenciaram maior variabilidade temporal na direção paralela à linha de plantio, indicando influência das práticas de manejo adotadas na área. A variabilidade espacial de FCO2 foi mais bem evidenciada na média (20 a 30 m) e longa (40 a 60 m) escalas, com sua estrutura de variabilidade, caracterizada pelo fractograma, correlacionando-se significativamente com a maioria dos atributos do solo e apresentando comportamento similar à observada para a temperatura do solo e volume total de poros. Além disso, os fractogramas permitiram observar o comportamento da dependência espacial e temporal de FCO2 e... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Soil CO2 emission (FCO2) is influenced by physical, chemical and biological factors that affect the production of CO2 in the soil and its transport to the atmosphere, varying in time and space as a function of environmental conditions and agricultural management. The aim of this study was to investigate the correlation between spatial and temporal variability patterns of FCO2 and soil properties in sugarcane area under green management by using fractal dimension (DF), derived from isotropic and anisotropic variogram at different spatial scales. The experimental area consisted of a regular grid of 60 × 60 m containing 141 points spaced at minimum distances ranging from 0.5 to 10 m. Soil CO2 emission, soil temperature and soil moisture were evaluated over a period of 7 days, and soil physical and chemical properties were determined by sampling at a depth of 0.0 to 0.1 m. The average of FCO2 ranged from 1.26 to 1.77 mol m-2 s-1 throughout the days, with temporal dependence in the medium and large scales, at ranges of more than 20 m. Despite the isotropic behavior observed for FCO2, their DF values, calculated for different directions, showed greater temporal variability in the direction parallel to the row, indicating the influence of area management. Spatial variability of FCO2 was better evidenced in the medium (20 to 30 m) and long (40 to 60 m) scales, with its variability structure, characterized by fractogram, significantly correlated with most soil properties and similar behaving to that observed for the soil temperature and total pore volume. In addition, fractograms allowed to observe the behavior of the spatial and temporal dependence... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

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Understanding forest carbon uptake and associated growth response is important for carbon sequestration and water management practices given the large quantities of carbon stored in forest ecosystems. Climate variability and forest management practices influence the magnitude and rate of soil CO2 efflux; however, their combined effects are complex and not well understood. This study investigated the response of soil CO2 efflux to the combined effects of climate variability, including those caused by climate oscillations, and shelterwood harvesting in a mature temperate white pine (Pinus strobes L.) forest, located near Lake Erie in southern Ontario, Canada. Analyses indicated that local winter temperatures and precipitation were influenced by climate oscillations, which affected forest carbon dynamics. After the shelterwood harvest removed approximately a third of the overstory canopy, no significant differences were found for soil temperature and soil moisture between the pre-harvesting (2008 to 2011) and post-harvesting (2012 to 2014) periods. Despite similar climate conditions pre- and post-harvesting, soil CO2 effluxes post-harvesting were lower. A Gaussian-Gamma specification model determined that heterotrophic (autotrophic) respiration decreased (increased) between pre- and post-harvesting, respectively. Mineral-soil respiration were similar pre- and post-harvesting. Soil CO2 efflux accounted for 78±9% of the annual ecosystem respiration (RE), derived using eddy-covariance fluxes. However, the overall net ecosystem productivity showed no significant difference between pre- and post-harvesting. This was attributed to an increase in the gross ecosystem productivity post-harvesting, compensating for the increased losses (i.e. increased RE). This study highlights the complexities of measuring various components of ecosystem respiration after a disturbance, such as a harvest. The knowledge gained from this study provides a better understanding of climate variability and shelterwood harvesting influences on ecosystem respiration and can be useful for forest managers focused on carbon sequestration and forest conservation. / Dissertation / Doctor of Science (PhD) / Coniferous forest plantations in eastern North America are undergoing silvicultural management to enhance their carbon sequestration capabilities and native-tree species diversity. This study investigated the combined influence of climate oscillations and shelterwood harvesting on soil carbon dynamics of a planted pine forest in southern Ontario, Canada. Between pre- and post-harvesting, soil temperature and soil moisture did not show any significant differences. However, soil CO2 effluxes in post-harvesting years were lower than pre-harvesting years. A Gaussian-Gamma specification model determined that heterotrophic (autotrophic) respiration decreased (increased) post-harvesting and mineral-soil respiration was similar between pre- and post-harvesting. An increase in ecosystem respiration post-harvesting, despite soil CO2 efflux decreasing and being the largest component, was primarily caused by the increase in autotrophic respiration due to enhancement in forest growth. This study improved the understanding of forest carbon dynamics by highlighting the importance of accounting for all components, which may contribute to ecosystem respiration. Results can be useful for forest management practitioners, specifically those focused on carbon sequestration and forest conservation.