In Chapter 1, a numerical computer technique is developed to determine radiation view factors between planar surfaces whose geometry is sufficiently regular so as to be defined by algebraic equations. This technique does not require spherical, cylindrical or rectangular symmetry, although such symmetries may be exploited when they exist. Once the essential geometric problem is formulated, enough generality can be built into the solutions so that certain "new" configurations, derived from translations or rotations of one surface relative to the other, can be solved as a matter of course. In Chapter 2, a model of bare soil evaporation is tested against measured flux from lysimeters obtained in the Peace River region of British Columbia and Alberta. Hydraulic diffusivity characteristics, measured from separate, adjacent field samples, were used in the model. Certain procedural difficulties in the measurement of hydraulic diffusivity are examined in detail, and recommendations for improvement are made. The degree to which evaporation simulation agrees with measured flux is discussed. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

A new experimental approach to determine the hydraulic characteristics of unsaturated soils using a centrifuge permeameter was developed in this study. Specifically, the centrifuge permeameter is used to determine the water retention curve (WRC), which quantifies the energy required to retain water in the soil pores during wetting and drying, and the hydraulic conductivity function (K-function), which quantifies the soil's change in impedance to water flow as it becomes unsaturated. An aim of this study is the promotion of using experimentally-derived hydraulic characteristics in engineering practice. Accordingly, the goals behind development of the centrifuge permeameter were a reasonable testing time, measurement of all variables relevant to water flow in unsaturated soils, and a methodology allowing straightforward interpretation of experimental data to determine the hydraulic characteristics. Development of the centrifuge permeameter was guided by lessons learned from an evaluation of previous characterization approaches. Specifically, issues such as the use of steady-state or transient water flow, boundary condition effects, and the use of instrumentation were evaluated in conventional tests to better develop the centrifuge permeameter. Steady-state infiltration of water through a soil specimen instrumented with tensiometers to measure matric suction and time domain reflectometry to infer moisture content was found to be the most reliable means of characterization. Steady-state water flow permits straightforward, repeatable interpretation of instrumentation results, boundary conditions, and flow data to determine the hydraulic characteristics. Centrifugation is employed to decrease the time required to reach steady-state water flow through a soil specimen by imposing a centripetal acceleration on the infiltrating water. The water infiltration rate and centripetal acceleration can be independently controlled in the centrifuge permeameter in order to reach different target hydraulic conductivity values. Continuous, in-flight measurement of the variables relevant to hydraulic characterization is possible through an on-board data acquisition system. The experimental component of this study is focused on validation of the centrifuge permeameter and verification of the hydraulic characteristics obtained using this approach. Simultaneous determination of the WRC and K-function for a clay of low plasticity was found to be possible in less than a week using the centrifuge permeameter, whereas several months were required in conventional tests. Consistent measurements of hydraulic conductivity were obtained using this approach, and little hysteresis was observed in the hydraulic characteristics. Additional experiments were performed to evaluate the validity of different assumptions required to interpret the experimental data and different issues in centrifuge testing. Two major assumptions required in previous centrifuge permeameter approaches were evaluated using the instrumentation available in the centrifuge permeameter. During steady-state water flow in the centrifuge, the suction and moisture content were found to be relatively uniform along the longitudinal axis of the permeameter, and the outflow boundary was found to have a negligible influence on the suction profile. Settlement under the increased body forces in the centrifuge were found to be negligible for the soil investigated in this study. The hydraulic characteristics were found to be sensitive to the calibration of the transducers and sensors used to infer the water pressure and moisture content during centrifugation. Overall, the expeditious, direct determination of the hydraulic characteristics of unsaturated soils was successfully achieved using centrifuge technology. Accordingly, the centrifuge permeameter approach helps promote the use hydraulic characteristics of unsaturated soils in geotechnical engineering design.

The recent development of the peltier-type thermocouple psychrometer has made possible the measurement of soil moisture potentials to values as low as -80 bars. The applicability of this type of psychrometer to "in situ" measurements of moisture potential at a Sonoran desert field site is investigated. An evaluation is made of the effect of variations in soil temperature, moisture content, and solute concentrations on the psychrometric measurements. Moisture potential measurements with the psychrometer are shown to be limited to a moisture content range composing approximately 50 per cent of the total variation in soil moisture observed during the study. A significant quantity of moisture is transferred across the soilatmosphere interface at moisture contents both above and below the measurement range of the psychrometer. Psychrometric measurements cannot be used to determine the total moisture flux into or out of the soil horizon. The temperature component of the total soil moisture potential is not measurable with the thermocouple psychrometer. Under conditions occurring frequently within the study period, this component is shown to be of equivalent or greater magnitude than the components measured with psychrometric techniques. Laboratory measurements of the sorption-desorption isotherms for the field soils were made using thermocouple psychrometers. The isotherms vary significantly among samples, as a function of soil composition. This variation prevents the determination of absolute values of soil moisture content from measurements of soil moisture potential. However, for the soils at the field site, the slope of the moisture isotherms at a given potential does not vary significantly among samples. Psychrometric measurements can be used to determine moisture content changes at the study site, within the measurement range of the psychrometers. The variation in moisture isotherms, the significance of temperature induced moisture flux, and the limited moisture range of psychrometric measurements prevents the construction of a quantitative model of soil moisture movement from potential measurements made with thermocouple psychrometers. The effect of Celtis pallida (desert hackberry), a native plant species, on the soil moisture regime is described. Moisture uptake by the plant, and precipitation input to the soil near the plant are described in terms of the potential variations they produce. The particular hackberry plant studied is shown to be removing moisture from the soil at potential values as low as -30 atmospheres. Moisture potentials in the root zone were within the measurement range of the psychrometers throughout most of the year. The measurement of soil moisture potentials with the thermocouple psychrometer is shown to be an effective means of studying moisture content variations in the root zone of desert plant species.

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Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Irrigation scheduling is one of the most important cultural practices in irrigated vineyards. Water holding capacity of soil is arguably therefore one of the most important characteristics of a soil as it determines how much water can be made available to the plant. The measurement of water holding capacity of soils is time consuming and costly. In situ determinations are often impractical to determine. For routine determinations, water holding capacity is therefore determined on disturbed samples. Such a method for example is the rubber ring method. A great deal of criticism surrounds this rubber ring method and results are often questioned. The objectives of this study were therefore to determine what the relationship was between undisturbed and disturbed samples and to determine whether compacted samples could give a more accurate representation of the water holding capacity of soil. Soil textural factors influencing the volumetric water content of undisturbed, rubber ring and compacted samples at 5, 10 and 100 kPa were investigated. In addition, soil textural properties influencing water holding capacity of the respective samples between 5 and 100 kPa and 10 and 100 kPa were investigated. The final objective of the study was to develop simple models to predict the volumetric water content and water holding capacity of soil. Undisturbed and disturbed soil samples were taken at various localities to ensure a wide range of textures. Water holding capacity of undisturbed and disturbed samples was determined at ARC Infruitec-Nietvoorbij using the standard air pressure and ceramic plate technique and the routine rubber ring method respectively. Soil samples were also compacted to a bulk density of approximately 1.5 g.cm-3 as a further treatment for determination of water holding capacity using the air pressure and ceramic plate technique. To investigate aspects of soil texture that could possibly influence volumetric water content of the soil, correlations were done between different texture components and volumetric water content of undisturbed, rubber ring and compacted samples at 5, 10 and 100 kPa. In order to determine the effect of texture on water holding capacity of the soil, correlations were drawn between texture components and water holding capacity of undisturbed, rubber ring and compacted samples between matric potential ranges 5 and 100 kPa and 10 and 100 kPa. The results from this study were used to develop models to predict volumetric soil water content and water holding capacity of soils for a range of soils. Volumetric water content of rubber ring samples at 5 kPa was more than the volumetric water content of undisturbed samples at 5 kPa. The volumetric water content of rubber ring samples at 5 kPa and the volumetric water content of undisturbed samples at 5 kPa was correlated by 87%. Volumetric water content of compacted samples at 5 kPa had a 85% degree of correlation with the volumetric water content of undisturbed samples. At 10 kPa, the correlation between volumetric water content determined using rubber ring samples and undisturbed samples was 77%. This was identical to the correlation between volumetric water content of compacted samples at 10 kPa and undisturbed samples. At 100 kPa, most of the rubber ring samples' volumetric water content fell below the 1:1 line of volumetric water content of undisturbed samples. The volumetric water content of all the compacted samples was higher than that of the undisturbed samples. Water holding capacity of all the rubber ring samples between 5 and 100 kPa was greater than the water holding capacity of the undisturbed samples between 5 and 100 kPa. Rubber ring samples therefore generally overestimated the water holding capacity of the soil. The water holding capacity of most of the rubber ring samples between 10 and 100 kPa was greater than the water holding capacity of the undisturbed samples. In contrast, the water holding capacity of compacted samples between 5 and 100 kPa was less than the water holding capacity of undisturbed samples between 5 and 100 kPa. Water holding capacity of compacted samples was therefore underestimated. The results from this study confirmed that the influence of clay and silt content on volumetric water content of undisturbed, rubber ring and compacted samples increased as the suction on the respective samples is increased. The influence of fine sand content on volumetric water content of undisturbed, rubber ring and compacted samples decreased with an increase in matric potential to 100 kPa. Medium sand content of undisturbed, rubber ring and compacted samples had the greatest influence of all the textural components on the volumetric water content of the respective samples at 5 kPa and 10 kPa. Water holding capacity of undisturbed, rubber ring and compacted samples between 5 and 100 kPa was greatly influenced by the fine sand content of the samples. Medium sand content of the samples also had an influence on the water holding capacity thereof. To predict the volumetric water content of undisturbed samples at 5, 10 and 100 kPa, the independent variables were fine sand content, square root of medium sand content and In of medium sand content. In the case of models to predict the volumetric water content of rubber ring samples at 5, 10 and 100 kPa, the same variables were used as independent variables. Additional variables such as silt content, the In of silt content, square root of clay plus silt content and the medium sand content. To predict the volumetric water content of compacted samples at 5, 10 and 100 kPa the terms used were silt content, clay plus silt content, the e-clay plus silt content. medium sand content and the square root of medium sand content. The models to predict volumetric water content of rubber ring samples gave the best correlation with the actual volumetric water content of rubber ring samples. The final models to predict the water holding capacity of all the samples between 5 and 100 kPa and 10 and 100 kPa used only fine and medium sand parameters as independent variables. Soil textural components do play an important role in determining the volumetric water content of undisturbed, rubber ring and compacted samples at 5, 10 and 100 kPa. The magnitude of the water holding capacity between 5 and 100 kPa and 10 and 100 kPa is also influenced by soil texture. The models developed to predict the volumetric water content of samples at 5, 10 and 100 kPa and the magnitude of the water holding capacity between 5 and 100 kPa and 10 and 100 kPa could be very useful. Both time and money can potentially be saved. Models that can be highly recommended are the models generated for the undisturbed samples. These are: At 5 kPa, VWCu = 0.47259 - 0.04712 medium sando.s At 10 kPa, VWCu = 0.41292 - 0.04221 medium sandos At 100 kPa, VWCu = 0.48080 - 0.00254 fine sand - 0.0865 In medium sand Between 5 and 100 kPa, WHCu = -29.523 + 3.394 fine sand Between 10 and 100 kPa, WHCu = -891.794 + 232.326 In fine sand + 38.006 In medium sand / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Besproeiingskedulering is een van die belangrikste wingerdverbouingspraktyke. Waterhouvermoë bepaal hoeveel water beskikbaar gestel kan word aan die plant en daarom is dit een van die belangrikste eienskappe van 'n grond. Die meting van waterhouvermoë van grond is tydsaam en duur. Boonop is in situ bepalings dikwels onprakties om te bepaal. Waterhouvermoë word dus bepaal op versteurde monsters vir roetine ontledings. 'n Voorbeeld van so 'n metode is die rubberring metode. Daar bestaan groot kritiek teenoor hierdie rubberring metode en resultate word dikwels betwyfel deur die landboubedryf. Die doel van hierdie studie was dus om te bepaal wat die verwantskap is tussen onversteurde monsters en rubberring monsters asook om te bepaal of gekompakteerde monsters 'n meer akkurate aanduiding sou gee as onversteurde monsters van die waterhouvermoë van die grond. Grondtekstuur faktore wat die volumetriese waterinhoud van onversteurde monsters, rubberring monsters en gekompakteerde monsters by 5, 10 and 100 kPa beïnvloed, was ondersoek. Grondtekstuur faktore wat waterhouvermoë van die onderskeie monsters tussen 5 en 100 kPa en tussen 10 en 100 kPa beïnvloed, was ook ondersoek. Die finale doelwit van die studie was om eenvoudige modelle te ontwikkel vir die voorspelling van volumetriese waterinhoud en waterhouvermoë van grond. Onversteurde grond monsters en grond vir versteurde monsters is by verskeie lokaliteite geneem om 'n wye reeks teksture te verkry. Waterhouvermoë van onversteurde monsters is bepaal by LNR Infruitec- Nietvoorbij met die standaard drukplaat tegniek. Waterhouvermoë van versteurde grond is bepaal met die roetine rubberring metode van LNR Infruitec-Nietvoorbij. Grond was ook gekompakteer tot 'n bulkdigtheid van ongeveer 1.5 g.cm-3 en daarna is die waterhouvermoë bepaal by die LNR Infruitec- Nietvoorbij met die standaard drukplaat tegniek. Om aspekte van grondtekstuur, wat moontlik die volumetriese waterinhoud van grond kan beïnvloed te ondersoek, is korrelasies tussen verskeie tekstuur komponente en die volumetriese waterinhoud van onversteurde monsters, rubberring monsters en gekompakteerde monsters by 5, 10 en 100 kPa bepaal. Om te bepaal watter tekstuur komponente waterhouvermoë van die grond kan bepaal, is korrelasies getrek tussen tekstuur komponente en waterhouvermoë van onversteurde monsters, rubberring monsters en gekompakteerde monsters tussen 5 en 100 kPa en tussen 10 en 100 kPa. Die data is verwerk met die SAS uitgawe 6.12 (SAS, 1990) om modelle vir die voorspelling van volumetriese waterinhoud en waterhouvermoë van grond met behulp van maklik kwantifiseerbare grondtekstuur veranderlikes te ontwikkel. Die volumetriese waterinhoud van rubberring monsters by 5 kPa was meer as die volumetriese waterinhoud van onversteurde monsters by 5 kPa. Die volumetriese waterinhoud van rubberring monsters by 5 kPa en die volumetriese waterinhoud van onversteurde monsters by 5 kPa is gekorreleerd met 87%. Die volumetriese waterinhoud van gekompakteerde monsters by 5 kPa het 'n korrelasie van 85% met volumetriese waterinhoud van onversteurde monsters getoon. By 10 kPa, was die graad van korrelasie tussen volumetriese waterinhoud bepaal met rubberring monsters en onversteurde monsters, 77%. Dit was omtrent dieselfde as die graad van korrelasie tussen volumetriese waterinhoud van gekompakteerde monsters en onversteurde monsters by 10 kPa. By 100 kPa het die meeste van die rubberring monsters se volumetriese waterinhoud onderkant die 1:1 lyn van die volumetriese waterinhoud by 100 kPa van al die onversteurde monsters. Die volumetriese waterinhoud van al die gekompakteerde monsters was hoër as die van die onversteurde monsters. Die waterhouvermoë van al die rubberring monsters tussen 5 en 100 kPa was groter as die van die onversteurde monsters tussen 5 en 100 kPa. Die rubberring monsters het dus oor die algemeen die grootte van die waterhouvermoë oorskry. Die waterhouvermoë van die meeste van die rubberring monsters tussen 10 en 100 kPa was groter as die waterhouvermoë van die onversteurde monsters. Die waterhouvermoë van gekompakteerde monsters tussen 5 en 100 kPa was minder as die waterhouvermoë van die onversteurde monsters tussen 5 en 100 kPa. Die waterhouvermoë van gekompakteerde grondmonsters is dus onderskat. Die resultate van hierdie studie het die invloed van klei- en slik- inhoud op die volumetriese waterinhoud van onversteurde monsters, rubberring monsters en gekompakteerde monsters bevestig. Die invloed van klei en sand op die volumetriese waterinhoud van onversteurde monsters, rubberring monsters en gekompakteerde monsters het toegeneem soos die matriks potensiaal op die onderskeie monsters toegeneem het. Die invloed van fynsand op die volumetriese waterinhoud van onversteurde monsters, rubberring monsters en gekompakteerde monsters was die grootste by 5 kPa en het afgeneem tot by 100 kPa. Die mediumsand inhoud van onversteurde monsters, rubberring monsters en gekompakteerde monsters het van al die tekstuur komponente die grootste invloed op die volumetriese waterinhoud van al die monsters by 5 kPa en 10 kPa gehad. Die waterhouvermoë van onversteurde monsters, rubberring monsters en gekompakteerde monsters tussen 5 en 100 kPa is grootliks beinvloed deur die fynsand inhoud van die monsters. Die mediumsand inhoud van die monsters het ook 'n invloed gehad op die waterhouvermoë daarvan. Om die volumetriese waterinhoud van onversteurde monsters by 5, 10 en 100 kPa te voorspel, is onafhanklike veranderlikes soos fynsand inhoud, vierkantswortel van mediumsand inhoud en In van mediumsand inhoud bepaal. In die geval van modelle om die volumetriese waterinhoud van rubberring monsters by 5, 10 en 100 kPa te voorspel, is dieselfde veranderlikes gebruik as onafhanklike veranderlikes. Addisionele veranderlikes soos slik inhoud, In van slik inhoud, die vierkantswortel van die klei plus slik inhoud en die mediumsand inhoud is ook gebruik. Om die volumetriese waterinhoud van gekompakteerde monsters by 5, 10 en 100 kPa te voorspel, is die terme slik inhoud, klei plus slik inhoud, e-klei plus slik inhoud, mediumsand inhoud en vierkantswortel van mediumsand inhoud gebruik. Die modelle om volumetriese waterinhoud van rubberring samples te voorspel het die akkuraatste voorspellings gegee. Die finale modelle, om waterhouvermoë van alle monsters tussen 5 en 100 kPa en tussen 10 en 100 kPa te bepaal, het slegs fyn en mediumsand as onafhanklike veranderlikes gebruik. Grondtekstuur komponente speel dus 'n belangrike rol in die volumetriese waterinhoud van onversteurde monsters, rubberring monsters en gekompakteerde monsters by 5, 10 en 100 kPa. Die grootte van die waterhouvermoë tussen 5 en 100 kPa en tussen 10 en 100 kPa is ook beinvloed deur die grondtekstuur. Die modelle wat ontwikkel is om die volumetriese waterinhoud van monsters by 5, 10 en 100 kPa en die grootte van die waterhouvermoë tussen 5 en 100 kPa en tussen 10 and 100 kPa te voorspel, kan baie waardevol wees. Tyd en geld kan potensieel bespaar word. Die modelle wat hoogs aanbevole is, is die modelle vir onversteurde monsters. Die modele is: By 5 kPa, VWlo = 0.47259 - 0.04712 rnedlumsand?" By 10 kPa, VWlo = 0.41292 - 0.04221 mediumsando.s By 100 kPa, VWlo = 0.48080 - 0.00254 fynsand - 0.0865 In mediumsand Tussen 5 en 100 kPa, WHVo = -29.523 + 3.394 fynsand Tussen 10 en 100 kPa, WHVo = -891.794 + 232.326 In fynsand + 38.006 In mediumsand

Sampling and analysis of the soil moisture distribution and the overall water balance in an irrigated area are the central topics of this work. An experimental study was made in a 14-ha, border-irrigated, alfalfa field near Coolidge, in Final County, Arizona, during the summer/fall 1983. The water stored in the soil profile and its change with time were normally distributed, with coefficients of variation of about 10 and 25 percent, respectively. Temporal correlations were significant for storage (about .60), but absent in the other. Variograms were calculated to show the spatial structure of the distributions. An analogous statistical description was presented for the alfalfa yield. Also shown is a methodology to infer errors due to the field calibration of the neutron probe. Another task was to assess a methodology to minimize sample numbers for soil-water storage. Following the ideas of Vachaud and co-workers in France, it was verified that rankings of the measurements were approximately time-preserved. As a consequence, only a few key locations need to be sampled to evaluate the mean in those circumstances. Included also is an approximation to predict confidence intervals for estimating the mean, when such "representative sites" are used. Using irrigation inflow and rainfall, a procedure is defined to make use of the soil moisture data to evaluate irrigation efficiency and uniformity. Evapotranspiration (ET) distribution can also be assessed by soil moisture measurements, but only conditionally. For example, adaptation of the "field capacity" concept in the field study led to average daily ET rates in the range of 3-11 mm day⁻¹. ET and potential ET (PET) were also determined from weather data. Crop temperature was required in the ET calculation. Such a model, developed by Hatfield and co-workers, was judged satisfactory in our application, but not the Penman PET estimates. It is concluded that the ET model is promising, particularly if remote sensing of the temperatures is successful in the future. Also shown as a possibility is the use of plant temperature and pan evaporation data to infer crop water stress.

Photocopy of typescript. / Digitized by Kansas Correctional Industries