The field study involved obtaining complete soil descriptions and data relating to the vegetation, relief, climate and geology of the area. The tests selected for the laboratory phase of the study were those thought most likely to reveal the degree of development of each profile and included mechanical analysis, apparent specific gravity, fusion analysis, cation exchange capacity, organic carbon, and soil reaction. The results of the study indicate that the soils form a sequence of profiles showing different degrees of development. The first soil examined shows little evidence of profile development since free lime occurs right to the surface and there is no evidence of translocation of any constituents down the profile. It is suggested that this soil be treated as an Alluvial soil in classification. The second profile, termed a Brown Wooded soil, shows slightly greater development than the Alluvial soil, but at the same time it has not reached the Grey Wooded stage of development, as represented by the third profile. Free lime has been leached to a depth of six inches but there is no accumulation of clay or sesquioxides in the B horizon of the Brown Wooded soil. It would appear that this soil should be separated from Alluvial and Grey Wooded soils at the family level of the classification system. The third profile has the characteristics necessary for classification as a Grey Wooded soil. The analyses show that there has been an appreciable translocation of clay and sesquioxides from the A₂ to the B₂ horizon. The apparent specific gravity and percent base saturation are also typical of Grey Wooded soils. The fourth soil studied is a polygenetic profile having a Brown Podzolic soil in the upper part of the solum and a heavy textured clay horizon typical of Grey Wooded soils in the lower part. It would appear that a Brown Podzolic soil has developed in the A₂ horizon of a Grey Wooded due to acid leaching. This soil is considered to be a Grey Wooded-Brown Podzolic intergrade. The fifth soil is the most mature soil in the sequence. This profile is characterized by the development of a Podzol soil in the A₂ horizon of a Grey Wooded. The laboratory analyses have confirmed field observations in this regard. There is an accumulation of sesquioxides and organic matter, typical of Podzol soils in the B_█(p@) horizon,while the lower B_2gw horizon shows the clay accumulation characteristic of Grey Wooded soils. The soil reaction, cation exchange capacities and percent base saturation are also in agreement with the accepted definitions of these soils. The fifth soil, therefore, is considered to be a Grey Wooded-Podzol intergrade. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

The soils of the Doukhobor lands of British Columbia were studied as a part of a research project undertaken by faculty members of the University of British Columbia at the request of the Attorney General of the Province. These lands comprise about 18,872 acres that occur in 16 parcels or communities in two general areas, 5327 acres near Grand Forks and 13,545 acres in the West Kootenay area. Soil surveys of these areas were conducted during the summers of 1951 and 1952. They were traversed by automobile and on foot and the soil type boundaries and related information plotted on aerial photographs of the scale of about one mile to 13 inches. From these photographs, soil maps were prepared of the scale of 400 feet to the inch. In the course of the field operations bulk and undisturbed soil profile samples were collected from the more important soil types and test were conducted relative to infiltration rates and field moisture capacities. The soil profile samples were used in the laboratory during the winters for the determination of soil reaction, organic carbon, nitrogen, mechanical composition, apparent specific gravity, pore size distribution, permanent wilting percentage and other properties. The more important soils of the valleys at Grand Forks were found to belong to the Black soil group while those in the West Kootenay were classed as Brown Podzolio. Small areas of Glei soils were also found. The soil parent materials were chiefly alluvium, glacial till and till derivatives and alluvial fan. From this information soil series were tentatively named and described. The Black soils have reactions ranging from about pH 7 in the A₁ horizon to pH 8.5 in the 0 horizon where free lime occurred. In reaction the Brown Podzolio soils were acid in all horizons and free lime was characteristically absent. The organic carbon content of the Black soils was significantly higher and the carbon to nitrogen ratio narrower than that of the Brown Podzolio soils. The mechanical analysis showed the soils to be low in clay and silt and high in sand in both areas, the exceptions being the soils derived from fine textured alluvium such as the Shoreacres, Glaybrlck and Claypit series. High macro-pore space, infiltration rates and hydraulic conductivities also characterize most of the soils. The field moisture storage capacity and permanent wilting percentage values showed that most of the soils have very low available moisture storage capacities which seriously limit their use for crop production without irrigation. When the soils were classified on the basis of their suitability for crop production without irrigation, only 3,037 acres or 17 percent of the area was classed as arable, and of this only 321 acres or 2 percent was Class 1. The land classed as nonarable without irrigation is suitable for forestry, wildlife, water storage, building sites and other uses. When rated on the basis of its suitability for crop production with sprinkler type irrigation 11,053 acres or 58 percent of the total area was classified as suitable for irrigation but of this only 635 acres or 3 percent was rated as Class 1, It is evident that Irrigation will be a very Important consideration in the use of these lands. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

This study was initiated to determine the impact of clear-cutting, slashburning and skidroads on deep (>3 feet) coarse glacial soils at low elevations (<1000 ft. above sea level) of coastal British Columbia. Infiltration capacity, as measured with double-ring, constant-head infiltrometers, was the main measure of physical-hydrologic soil condition. The relationships between infiltration capacity and soil variables, including aeration porosity, total porosity, bulk density, texture, organic matter content and antecedent soil water content, were examined. The average infiltration rates of the undisturbed, forested areas were 17.92 inches/hour on well-drained acid brown wooded soil and 25.99 inches/hour on well-drained degraded acid brown wooded soil. Skidroads caused drastic reductions in infiltration. Average infiltration over a three hour period was 3.66 inches/hour on well-drained acid brown wooded soil three years after moderate skid-road use, 12.36 inches/hour on well drained degraded acid brown wooded soil three years after light skidroad use and 5.33 inches/ hour on moderately well-drained orthic podsol soil ten years after heavy skidroad use. Slashburning significantly reduced infiltration, although not to the levels of skidroads. Two years after burning, average infiltration over a three hour period was 13.42 inches/hour on well- drained acid brown uooded soil and 17.87 inches/hour on well-drained degraded acid brown wooded. Clearcutting did not significantly alter infiltration. Average infiltration over a three hour period was 2D.51 inches/hour on well-drained degraded acid brown wooded soil and 20.17 inches/hour on moderately well-drained orthic podsol soil. Some of the variations in infiltration by treatment and soil type are explained with the aid of multiple regression techniques. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

The classification of Canadian alpine soils has been hampered due to the lack of knowledge about their genesis and morphology. The objectives of this study were to determine the morphology of some alpine soils; determine their genesis through the investigation of physical, chemical and mineralogical properties; classify the soils and indicate what factors should be considered in making alterations to the present system of soil classification. Five soils were analysed and three of these were found to have been influenced by volcanic ash. No one process was found to be characteristic of alpine soils. The analyses indicated clays, amorphous iron, aluminum, silicon and organic matter were being eluviated. At four sites organic matter was accumulating to form an acidic Chernozem-like Ah horizon. The mineralogical investigations indicated more advanced stages of weathering of minerals than expected in an alpine environment, with the concomittant formation of pedogenic secondary minerals. In an attempt to classify the soils it was found that only three out of the five soils studied could be classified. Two soils were classified as a members of the Brunisolic Order, the third was placed into the Podzolic Order. The two soils which could not be classified were excluded as no provision at any categorical level of classification is made for soils with non-turfy Alpine Dystric Brunisol Ah horizons, overlying Podzolic Bf horizons. Considerations that should be given attention in relation to the present system of classification of Canadian soils are: (a) The presence of volcanic ash in soils has a morphological and physico-chemical influence on changes taking place in the soil. (b) Alpine soils are not limited to one morphology but can express any number of characteristics depending on environmental factors. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

The primary aim of this study was to investigate vegetation production and soil management factors influencing forage establishment on the waste rock dumps at a Southern Interior B.C. copper mine. Total plant cover on the waste rock dumps ranged from less than 5 to greater than 80 percent. Vegetation and spoil from the major reclaimed sites were analyzed to determine possible causes for the differences in plant cover. Test case areas, which varied in production, topography, and treatment, were then selected for an investigation into the relationships between spoil and vegetation variables. Waste rock and overburden glacial till materials were generally low in N, P, and Mg. Spoil N and K levels varied throughout each reclaimed site, likely as a result of fertilizer placement. Significant positive relationships were found between spoil N and grass cover and spoil K and both grass and legume cover. P levels in legumes from most fertilized sites were still in a deficiency range. A negative relationship between coarse fragment content and legume cover was observed. High coarse fragment content, accompanied with low water holding capacity and dry climatic conditions, suggests that moisture deficiencies are likely a critical problem for revegetation success, particularly on the lower portions of the slope faces. High bulk density values on the flat terraces indicated that compaction could be impeding root growth. Multivariate cluster analysis, based on total percent plant cover and percent composition legumes, was used to categorize all study sites into four vegetation production groups: low cover, grass cover, mixed grass and legume cover, and high production legume dominated cover. Spoil characteristics that differentiated between groups were: N, P, K, Mg, pH, coarse fragment content, and bulk density. This classification system will assist in identifying the management requirements of each vegetation type, such as: level and type of fertilization, overburden capping to reduce coarse fragment content, and scarification. Multiple regression analysis was used to generate equations for predicting biomass production from spoil N, P, K, Mg, pH, and coarse fragment content. Reclamation costs were estimated and it was demonstrated that grass cover and mixed grass and legume cover types were the most desirable. Although costs per hectare were lowest for the low cover type, efficiency of reclamation dollars (dollars invested per tonne forage produced) was also lowest for this type. Establishment of a legume dominated cover type may not be desirable due to forage quality considerations: Cu:Mo ratios in legume foliage averaged less than the recommended 2:1 for cattle grazing. / Science, Faculty of / Resources, Environment and Sustainability (IRES), Institute for / Graduate

Seven soils with deep surface horizons high in organic matter occurring in south-eastern Vancouver Island in an unique environment were elucidated. The climate is similar to that of the northern Mediterranean. The vegetation consists of a grass and Garry oak (Querous gavvyana) parkland on the more xeric sites. This vegetation is believed to be part of a biosequence of grass, Garry oak and Douglas fir {Psuedotsuga menziesii). Four sites were located under vegetation consisting of grass and scattered Garry oak, two sites under Garry oak and one under Douglas fir. In the first paper, Dark Soils of the Victoria Area, Vancouver Island I Environment, Morphology and Genesis, the soils and the environment are described. All the soils were classified into the Canadian and American Systems of Soil Classification. The soils were all classified as Sombric Brunisols except for the one under Douglas fir which was classified as a Sombric Podzol according to the Canadian System of Soil Classification. In the second paper, Dark Soils of the Victoria Area, Vancouver Island, II Physical, Chemical, Mineralogical Properties and Genesis, the results of the physical, chemical and mineralogical analysis are discussed. The soils are coarse textured and are all characterized by high amounts of organic matter in the surface horizon. The organic matter has an influence on many of the soil properties. Most weathering in these soils occurs in the surface horizons. In the third paper. Natural Organo-Mineral Complexes in Some Sombric Soils of the Victoria Area, Vancouver Island, the natural complexes of surface horizons were separated and studied. The separates in this study included: coarse silt (50-20M), fine silt (20-2u), coarse clay (2-0.2y) and fine clay (<0.2y). Most of the soils organic matter was found to be associated with the fine silt and coarse clay fractions. The amount of organic matter per centimeter square in the coarse and fine clay was found to be nearly constant. The finer fractions were associated with the more humified organic matter. The importance of the binding or bridging cations were found to be in the order: Al, Ca, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn = Mg in these soils. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

A study was undertaken to determine some of the chemical, physical and pedological factors affecting the genesis of shot formations in the Fairbridge and Alberni shot soils series of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. On the basis of hardness, color and texture, Fairbridge and Alberni shot formations were separated into two groups, one of which was classified as true shot and the other as pseudoshot. Chemical analyses showed that the two forms contained different amounts of aluminum, iron, manganese, phosphorus and silica, and that both forms acted as accumulation centres for aluminum, iron, manganese and phosphorus when their totals of these elements were compared with those present in the shot formation matrix ('B' horizons) and parent material ('C' horizons). Physical analyses of shot formations showed diversity in the percentages of sand, silt and clay contained in shot and pseudoshot, and the particle size distribution of these components also differed in both forms. Shot formations were found to be concentrated in the surface ('B') horizons of each series studied, and the 'C' horizon of each soil type was found to be impermeable to water. This latter condition, coupled with the seasonal fluctuation in temperature and precipitation in the respective areas, produced alternate wetting and drying cycles similar to those observed by other investigators of shot soils. Micropedological studies involving the preparation, examination and photographing of shot formation and soil horizon thin sections showed that the degree of weathering of clay minerals in shot and pseudoshot was not comparative, and that similar differences existed between shot formations and the 'B' and 'C' horizons of each soil series. It is postulated that shot genesis might begin with parent material which, after passing through a pseudoshot stage, develops into the true shot form. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

Part I. The Boron Content of British Columbia Soils British Columbia soils were analyzed for total and available boron. Peace River soils showed significantly higher total contents than did soils from the rest of the province. Lower Fraser Valley soils were low in total boron. One hundred and twenty-four surface soils showed available boron contents ranging from 0.0 to 22.0 p.p.m. Lime additions seemed to lower the available boron content of certain Fraser Valley Soils. Part II. Investigations Concerning the Possibility of Using Tourmaline Rock as a Boron Fertilizer. A Tourmaline rock supplied by the Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company seemed to offer little value as a boron fertllizer. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

The field, work for this investigation was carried out in the summer of 1952, during this time soil samples and field notes were made. Further soil samples were secured in the summer of 1953, The area in which the yellow pine communities were studied was in the Okanagan, Similkameen, Nicola and South Thompson valleys as well as the southern Cariboo in the vicinity of Clinton, The soil samples were air-dried, weighed and the gravel fraction ( particles greater than 2 mm. in diameter) separated by sieve. The gravel fraction was weighed and the percentage determined for each sample. The mechanical analysis was done by means of the Bouyoueos hydrometer Method, following the removal of organic matter by hydrogen peroxide, and carbonates by treatment with hydrochloric acid. The results of the mechanical analysis were expressed in terms of percentages, by weight, of sand, silt and clay on the basis of the soil sample with the gravel removed. Using the textural classification of the United States Department of Agriculture the results were expressed In terms of sandy loam, loam, etc. for each plant community. The ranges in soil texture for each plant community are: Agropyron association - sandy loam to clay loam with extremes of sand and clay. Stipa subassociation - sandy loam. Artemisia subassociation - clay loam. Purshia association – generally sand, occasionally sandy loam. Aristida subassociation- sand to sandy loam. Rhus association - loamy sand with high percentage of gravel. Arctostaphylos association - sandy loam or loamy sand to sand. Arctostaphylos - Calamagrostis association - sand to sandy Calamagrostis association - sandy clay loam to sandy loam. Symphoricarpos association - sandy loam and sandy clay loam. / Science, Faculty of / Botany, Department of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

A study was made to: i) determine the nature of acidity and buffering in acid soils of the Lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia, ii) evaluate and develop methods of predicting buffer capacities of these soils. Results of this study are described in a series of four papers, each describing different phases of this study. The Woodruff and Shoemaker, McLean and Pratt buffer methods proved to be unsuitable for use with these soils when compared to Ca(OH)₂ titration because the buffer pH depression was too small per unit lime requirement and there was considerable scatter about the regression calibration lime. Measurements of lime potential and corrected lime potential as well as pH were found to be significantly correlated with measures of exchangeable acidity but not with measures of pH-dependent acidity. The pH-dependent component of potential acidity was found to be highest for horizons highest in organic matter and in acid ammonium oxalate extractable Al and Fe. Regression equations derived for predicting buffer capacities explained the largest degree of variation of titrable acidity in the pH ranges below pH 5 and above pH 6. The model developed, combining these equations for prediction of buffer capacities to selected end pH values predicted buffer capacities as determined by a Ca(OH)₂ titration reasonably well. Comparison of NaOCl with H₂O₂ for oxidation of organic matter prior to acid ammonium oxalate extraction showed the former to be less destructive to sesquioxides, while at the same time as good or better for the oxidation of organic matter. Results of titrations of soils before and after oxalate extraction following treatment with NaOCl gave inconclusive results with respect to acidity due to the oxalate extractable component. This was due not to the method of removal of organic matter, however, but to uncertainties with respect to the nature of the exchange phase. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate