Protection of groundwater sources has become an important issue in Canada. Over the last decade many approaches to the protection of groundwater sources have evolved. Some approaches provide qualitative information while others give quantitative values with respect to protection measures. The objective of the thesis is to examine the existing approaches of source water protection (SWP) using a complex geological setting, and introduce new methodologies towards the quantitative measurement of the various steps of SWP. The information obtained from the studies can be used to set up future guidelines for SWP. The first step in SWP is to assess the vulnerability of an aquifer. In this thesis, we compare three approaches for evaluating aquifer vulnerability: the Index Approach (Intrinsic Susceptibility Index, or ISI), the Hydraulic Resistance (HR) Approach (similar to the Aquifer Vulnerability Index, or AVI) and the Travel Time Approach (Surface to Aquifer Advective Time, or SAAT). The ISI approach uses the thickness and vertical hydraulic conductivity of the layers overlying an aquifer, and the vulnerability is expressed as a numerical score which is related to these parameters but is not physically based. The HR approach is physically based, uses the same parameters as ISI with the addition of porosity, and results are in the form of travel time under a unit gradient. SAAT extends the physically based approach by including the unsaturated zone and using the actual downward gradient; results are given in terms of advective travel time from surface to aquifer. These three approaches are compared, using two different aquifer systems. The second step in SWP is the delineation of wellhead protection areas (WHPAs). The WHPA delineates the area within which a source of contamination could have an impact on the well. The actual impact on the well depends not only on the source, but also on the characteristics of the groundwater system. Important considerations include the dimensionality of the system, the uncertainty in the system characteristics, and the physical processes that could affect the impact. The conventional approach is to define different time of travel (TOT) zones based on backward advective particle tracking. An alternative approach is to apply backward advective-dispersive solute transport modelling, in which dispersion can be taken as representing the uncertainty in defining the hydrogeologic characteristics (e.g. hydraulic conductivity) of the aquifer. The outlines of the TOT zones in the backward advective particle tracking approach is obtained by drawing an envelope around the respective tracks, which may require considerable guesswork. In the backward-in-time transport modelling, the outline of the TOT zones are developed using mass balance principles. The third step is the assessment of well vulnerability. Well vulnerability is based on the source-pathway-receptor concept which analyses the transport and fate of the contaminants along its path from the source to the receptor, and the interaction of the well itself with the flow system, and thus determines the actual impact on the well. The impact can be expressed in terms of the contaminant concentration in the well water. The mapping of the impact can be carried out by using a standard advective-dispersive transport model in either a forward-in-time mode (for a known contaminant source) or in a backward-in-time mode (for unknown sources). Thus, the well vulnerability concept goes beyond the conventional approach of WHPA, which is based solely on advective transport, neglecting dispersion and chemical processes. For any known point or non-point time-varying contaminant sources located arbitrarily within the well capture zone, the expected concentration at the well can simply be evaluated by convoluting the source mass with the results of the well vulnerability without further use of the model. Convolution is a well-known and effective superposition method to deal with arbitrary inputs in time and space for linear systems. The information of the contaminant concentration in the well water can be used to quantify the risk of a well becoming contaminated. Risk can be expressed in terms of the exposure value of the contaminant concentration exceeding the allowable limit and the time frame within which the well becomes contaminated. The exposure value can be integrated with the time element to set up a ranking of priorities, or to calculate the investment that must be made today in order to have the required funds available for remediation at the time it becomes necessary. The concept is applied to a well using hypothetical contaminant sources located arbitrarily within the capture zone. Well vulnerability maps can be used as a powerful tool to identify the optimal locations for Beneficial Management Practices (BMPs). A case study addressing the problem of elevated nitrate levels in a drinking water supply well is used to demonstrate the principle. The reduction of nitrate input concentration within the most vulnerable areas shows the largest impact at the well.

Protection of groundwater sources has become an important issue in Canada. Over the last decade many approaches to the protection of groundwater sources have evolved. Some approaches provide qualitative information while others give quantitative values with respect to protection measures. The objective of the thesis is to examine the existing approaches of source water protection (SWP) using a complex geological setting, and introduce new methodologies towards the quantitative measurement of the various steps of SWP. The information obtained from the studies can be used to set up future guidelines for SWP. The first step in SWP is to assess the vulnerability of an aquifer. In this thesis, we compare three approaches for evaluating aquifer vulnerability: the Index Approach (Intrinsic Susceptibility Index, or ISI), the Hydraulic Resistance (HR) Approach (similar to the Aquifer Vulnerability Index, or AVI) and the Travel Time Approach (Surface to Aquifer Advective Time, or SAAT). The ISI approach uses the thickness and vertical hydraulic conductivity of the layers overlying an aquifer, and the vulnerability is expressed as a numerical score which is related to these parameters but is not physically based. The HR approach is physically based, uses the same parameters as ISI with the addition of porosity, and results are in the form of travel time under a unit gradient. SAAT extends the physically based approach by including the unsaturated zone and using the actual downward gradient; results are given in terms of advective travel time from surface to aquifer. These three approaches are compared, using two different aquifer systems. The second step in SWP is the delineation of wellhead protection areas (WHPAs). The WHPA delineates the area within which a source of contamination could have an impact on the well. The actual impact on the well depends not only on the source, but also on the characteristics of the groundwater system. Important considerations include the dimensionality of the system, the uncertainty in the system characteristics, and the physical processes that could affect the impact. The conventional approach is to define different time of travel (TOT) zones based on backward advective particle tracking. An alternative approach is to apply backward advective-dispersive solute transport modelling, in which dispersion can be taken as representing the uncertainty in defining the hydrogeologic characteristics (e.g. hydraulic conductivity) of the aquifer. The outlines of the TOT zones in the backward advective particle tracking approach is obtained by drawing an envelope around the respective tracks, which may require considerable guesswork. In the backward-in-time transport modelling, the outline of the TOT zones are developed using mass balance principles. The third step is the assessment of well vulnerability. Well vulnerability is based on the source-pathway-receptor concept which analyses the transport and fate of the contaminants along its path from the source to the receptor, and the interaction of the well itself with the flow system, and thus determines the actual impact on the well. The impact can be expressed in terms of the contaminant concentration in the well water. The mapping of the impact can be carried out by using a standard advective-dispersive transport model in either a forward-in-time mode (for a known contaminant source) or in a backward-in-time mode (for unknown sources). Thus, the well vulnerability concept goes beyond the conventional approach of WHPA, which is based solely on advective transport, neglecting dispersion and chemical processes. For any known point or non-point time-varying contaminant sources located arbitrarily within the well capture zone, the expected concentration at the well can simply be evaluated by convoluting the source mass with the results of the well vulnerability without further use of the model. Convolution is a well-known and effective superposition method to deal with arbitrary inputs in time and space for linear systems. The information of the contaminant concentration in the well water can be used to quantify the risk of a well becoming contaminated. Risk can be expressed in terms of the exposure value of the contaminant concentration exceeding the allowable limit and the time frame within which the well becomes contaminated. The exposure value can be integrated with the time element to set up a ranking of priorities, or to calculate the investment that must be made today in order to have the required funds available for remediation at the time it becomes necessary. The concept is applied to a well using hypothetical contaminant sources located arbitrarily within the capture zone. Well vulnerability maps can be used as a powerful tool to identify the optimal locations for Beneficial Management Practices (BMPs). A case study addressing the problem of elevated nitrate levels in a drinking water supply well is used to demonstrate the principle. The reduction of nitrate input concentration within the most vulnerable areas shows the largest impact at the well.

Source water protection planning (SWPP) is an approach to prevent contamination of ground and surface water in watersheds where these resources may be abstracted for drinking or used for recreation. For SWPP the hazards within a watershed that could contribute to water contamination are identified together with the pathways that link them to the water resource. In rural areas, farms are significant potential sources of pathogens. A risk-based index can be used to support the assessment of the potential for contamination following guidelines on safety and operational efficacy of processes and practices developed as beneficial approaches to agricultural land management. Evaluation of the health risk for a target population requires knowledge of the strength of the hazard with respect to the pathogen load (mass concentration). Manure handling and on-site wastewater treatment systems form the most important hazards, and both can comprise confined and unconfined source elements. There is also a need to understand the modification of pathogen numbers (attenuation) together with characteristics of the established pathways (surface or subsurface), which allow the movement of the contaminant species from a source to a receptor (water source). Many practices for manure management have not been fully evaluated for their impact on pathogen survival and transport in the environment. A key component is the identification of potential pathways of contaminant transport. This requires the development of a suitable digital elevation model of the watershed for surface movement and information on local groundwater aquifer systems for subsurface flows. Both require detailed soils and geological information. The pathways to surface and groundwater resources can then be identified. Details of land management, farm management practices(including animal and manure management) and agronomic practices have to be obtained, possibly from questionnaires completed by each producer within the watershed. To confirm that potential pathways are active requires some microbial source tracking. One possibility is to identify the molecular types of Escherichia coli present in each hazard on a farm. An essential part of any such index is the identification of mitigation strategies and practices that can reduce the magnitude of the hazard or block open pathways.

<div>This dissertation focused on examining the potential unintended consequences of sustainability on drinking water quality at the tap. The rising trend in water conservation awareness has given rise to the use of water-efficient appliances and fixtures for residential potable water systems. The first study (Chapter 1) characterized the microbial dynamics at a water-efficient residential building over the course of one year and examined the effects of water stagnation, season, and changes in physicochemical properties on the occurrence of opportunistic pathogen markers. When rainwater harvesting is utilized as an alternative water resource in buildings, a combination of municipal water and rainwater is typically required to meet water demands. However, altering source water chemistry can disrupt pipe scale and biofilm and negatively impact water quality at the distribution level. The second study (Chapter 2) in this dissertation evaluated the potential water quality consequences of using intermittent supplies of municipal water and rainwater within building plumbing systems. Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) pipes are considered by some to be more sustainable than copper pipes and are commonly installed in building plumbing. The goal of the third study (Chapter 3) was to better understand chemical release from commercially available PEX pipes, to characterize toxicological characteristics of the contact water, and to compare microbial growth potential among the three pipe types. During the COVID-19 pandemic, many commercial and office buildings were closed for extended periods of time, allowing water age to increase over the course of several months. Heightened water age is often associated with an increase in chemical and microbial contamination. The objective of the fourth study (Chapter 4) was to evaluate the impacts of an extended COVID-19 related building closure and stagnation on water quality. The goal of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of flushing and shock chlorination remediation strategies on water quality at the tap. </div><div><br></div><div>This dissertation contains four chapters and each chapter is a single manuscript. The first two chapters have been published.</div><div><br></div><div>“Drinking water microbiology in a water-efficient building: Stagnation, seasonality, and physiochemical effects on opportunistic pathogen and total bacteria proliferation.” (Chapter 1) Utilizing a residential building that had been retrofitted with low-flow fixtures, the unintended water quality consequences of increased stagnation in low-flow plumbing were evaluated over a year long period. The study results indicated that microbial growth and potential opportunistic pathogen markers, Legionella and Mycobacterium spp. were detected at higher levels within the home as compared to the municipal water main. Reduced water usage induced longer stagnation times and longer stagnation times were correlated with an increase in Legionella spp., Mycobacterium spp., and total cell counts.</div><div><br></div><div>“Impacts of Municipal Water−Rainwater Source Transitions on Microbial and Chemical Water Quality Dynamics at the Tap.” (Chapter 2) Altering source water chemistry can disrupt pipe scale and biofilm and negatively impact water quality at the distribution level. Still, it is unknown if similar reactions occur within building plumbing following a transition in source water quality. To date, no prior studies had evaluated the water quality impacts of transitioning between rainwater and municipal groundwater sources in low-flow plumbing. The study revealed that influent water chemistry impacted rates of metal release from plumbing. Because of differences in source water treatment and water chemistry, rainwater and municipal water uniquely interacted with building plumbing and generated distinctively different drinking water chemical and microbial quality profiles. </div><div><br></div><div>“Contaminant Leaching and Toxicological Assessment of Drinking Water in Contact with Cross-linked Polyethylene (PEX) Pipes.” (Chapter 3) Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) plastic water pipes are increasingly being installed instead of copper pipes for conventional and green building construction. Unlike metal pipe, PEX pipe is easier to install and not vulnerable to corrosion. However, potential health concerns associated with PEX pipe are: 1.) the organic contaminant release that occurs during its service-life, 2.) increased microbial growth compared to metal pipes, and 3.) compound toxicity. Our study goal was to better understand chemical release from commercially available PEX pipes, to characterize toxicological characteristics of the contact water, and to compare microbial growth potential among the three pipe types at varying chlorine concentrations. Results indicated that PEX contact waters did not affect the neurobehavioral development of zebrafish, but affected development in the zebrafish model. Further studies should be conducted to determine how influent water chemistry impacts carbon migration and the water’s toxicity.</div><div><br></div><div>“Water quality during the COVID-19 pandemic: The role of flushing and shock chlorination strategies in reducing building water problems.” (Chapter 4) The COVID-19 pandemic led to widespread “stay at home” orders across the United States. As a result, many office buildings, schools, and commercial buildings were left empty, allowing water age within the plumbing to increase dramatically. Heightened stagnation and water age can lead to increased metal leaching from pipe walls, as well as increases in microbial growth and opportunistic pathogen proliferation. Water quality in a large school building was monitored after approximately six months of being closed due to COVID-19 related restrictions. Upon sampling the building, chemical and microbial water quality indicators were affected by the initial six month stagnation period. To monitor the relationship between shock chlorination and water quality at the tap, samples were collected at fixtures at different time points to gain a better understanding of the effects of shock disinfection on drinking water chemistry and microbiology. This study raises concerns with respect to the impact of extended building closures on drinking water quality and the best approach to remediate and monitor water quality issues thereafter.</div>

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O presente trabalho teve como objetivos estudar a potencialidade da FAD associada à oxidação química e comparar com a sedimentação também conjugada à oxidação química, em escala de laboratório, além de avaliar a eficiência de uma unidade piloto de FAD lamelar de alta taxa com escoamento horizontal no tratamento de água contendo ferro, manganês e matéria orgânica em concentrações acima dos padrões de potabilidade. Nos ensaios de flotação em escala de laboratório, entre os valores de dosagem de coagulante (cloreto férrico) investigados (na faixa de 15 a 35 mg/L) - o valor de 30 mg/L associado ao pH em torno de 6,2 e à aplicação de 2,7 mg/L de cloro, na forma de hipoclorito de sódio - apresentou os melhores resultados de remoção de cor, turbidez, ferro e manganês. No caso da sedimentação, também em escala de laboratório, dentre os valores de dosagem de coagulante investigados (30 e 45 mg/L), foi o valor de 30 mg/L associado a valor de pH em torno de 8,5 e à aplicação de 2,7 mg/L de cloro, que forneceu os melhores resultados de remoção de turbidez, ferro e manganês. A comparação entre a clarificação por FAD e por sedimentação da água de estudo, consideradas as melhores condições de coagulação e de floculação, mostrou que a flotação apresentou resultados de remoção de turbidez, cor aparente e ferro muito superiores aos obtidos nos ensaios de sedimentação. A unidade piloto de FAD lamelar de alta taxa com escoamento horizontal apresentou elevada eficiência de clarificação da água de estudo após prévia adequação das condições de oxidação química, coagulação e floculação, em escala de laboratório. Essa unidade foi capaz de operar, com excelente desempenho, com taxas de até 39 m/h, desde que fossem fornecidos 4,3 g de ar/m3 de água e tempo de floculação de 20 minutos. Finalmente, após o estudo e adequação das condições de coagulação, floculação e flotação por ar dissolvido, ) o efluente do flotador foi filtrado em unidade de filtração rápida descendente com leito de areia tendo apresentado residuais de turbidez em torno de 0,40 uT, cor aparente menor que 2 uC, ferro em torno de 0,10 mg/L e manganês a 0,02 mg/L, tanto para o efluente com taxa de flotação de 13 m/h quanto para 39 m/h, após 4 horas de filtração. Isto confirma a utilização, com elevada eficiência, da unidade piloto lamelar de alta taxa e escoamento horizontal com taxas de até 39 m/h, como pré-clarificação da água de estudo. / The aim of this research was to study and compare the potentiality of DAF and sedimentation processes associated with chemical oxidation, using lab scale (batch) as well as to assess the efficiency of a high-rate dissolved air flotation piloto unit with horizontal flow followed by a rapid sand bed filtration system, in the treatment of water with high concentration of iron, manganese and humic substances. For the essays in lab scale, among the values of coagulant dosage investigated (ferric chloride, in the range of 15-35 mg/L), the dosage of 30 mg/L associated to a pH value around 6.2 and oxidant dosage 2.7 mg/L of chlorine, in the form of sodium hypochlorite, presented the best results, in terms of color, turbidity, iron and manganese removal. For the sedimentation essays, also performed in lab scale, among the values of coagulant dosage investigated (30-45 mg/L), the dosage of 30 mg/L associated to 2.7 mg/L of chlorine supplied the best removal results for turbidity, iron and manganese. The comparison between dissolved air flotation and sedimentation clarification in lab scale, when the best conditions of coagulation and flocculation were carried out to both processes, showed that the results for flotation were highly better than the results obtained by sedimentation, in terms of turbidity, color and iron removal. The high-rate DAF pilot unit with horizontal flow showed high clarification efficiency after previous adaptation of the conditions of chemical oxidation, coagulation and flocculation, as investigated at the lab essays. The unit operated with excellent performance using high rates up to 39 m/h, since it was supplied 4.3 g of air/m3 of water and flocculation time of 20 minutes. The sand bed unit of rapid filtration showed high performance in removal of turbidity (around 0.40 uT), color (< 2 uC), iron (around 0.10 mg/L) and manganese (0.02 mg/L), with 4 hours of filtration, when rates from 13 to 39 m/h were used in the high-rate DAF pilot unit. This fact confirms that the use of the high-rate DAF pilot unit with rates up to 39 m/h is feasible with high efficiency as a pre-clarification to the water evaluated.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivos estudar a potencialidade da FAD associada à oxidação química e comparar com a sedimentação também conjugada à oxidação química, em escala de laboratório, além de avaliar a eficiência de uma unidade piloto de FAD lamelar de alta taxa com escoamento horizontal no tratamento de água contendo ferro, manganês e matéria orgânica em concentrações acima dos padrões de potabilidade. Nos ensaios de flotação em escala de laboratório, entre os valores de dosagem de coagulante (cloreto férrico) investigados (na faixa de 15 a 35 mg/L) - o valor de 30 mg/L associado ao pH em torno de 6,2 e à aplicação de 2,7 mg/L de cloro, na forma de hipoclorito de sódio - apresentou os melhores resultados de remoção de cor, turbidez, ferro e manganês. No caso da sedimentação, também em escala de laboratório, dentre os valores de dosagem de coagulante investigados (30 e 45 mg/L), foi o valor de 30 mg/L associado a valor de pH em torno de 8,5 e à aplicação de 2,7 mg/L de cloro, que forneceu os melhores resultados de remoção de turbidez, ferro e manganês. A comparação entre a clarificação por FAD e por sedimentação da água de estudo, consideradas as melhores condições de coagulação e de floculação, mostrou que a flotação apresentou resultados de remoção de turbidez, cor aparente e ferro muito superiores aos obtidos nos ensaios de sedimentação. A unidade piloto de FAD lamelar de alta taxa com escoamento horizontal apresentou elevada eficiência de clarificação da água de estudo após prévia adequação das condições de oxidação química, coagulação e floculação, em escala de laboratório. Essa unidade foi capaz de operar, com excelente desempenho, com taxas de até 39 m/h, desde que fossem fornecidos 4,3 g de ar/m3 de água e tempo de floculação de 20 minutos. Finalmente, após o estudo e adequação das condições de coagulação, floculação e flotação por ar dissolvido, ) o efluente do flotador foi filtrado em unidade de filtração rápida descendente com leito de areia tendo apresentado residuais de turbidez em torno de 0,40 uT, cor aparente menor que 2 uC, ferro em torno de 0,10 mg/L e manganês a 0,02 mg/L, tanto para o efluente com taxa de flotação de 13 m/h quanto para 39 m/h, após 4 horas de filtração. Isto confirma a utilização, com elevada eficiência, da unidade piloto lamelar de alta taxa e escoamento horizontal com taxas de até 39 m/h, como pré-clarificação da água de estudo. / The aim of this research was to study and compare the potentiality of DAF and sedimentation processes associated with chemical oxidation, using lab scale (batch) as well as to assess the efficiency of a high-rate dissolved air flotation piloto unit with horizontal flow followed by a rapid sand bed filtration system, in the treatment of water with high concentration of iron, manganese and humic substances. For the essays in lab scale, among the values of coagulant dosage investigated (ferric chloride, in the range of 15-35 mg/L), the dosage of 30 mg/L associated to a pH value around 6.2 and oxidant dosage 2.7 mg/L of chlorine, in the form of sodium hypochlorite, presented the best results, in terms of color, turbidity, iron and manganese removal. For the sedimentation essays, also performed in lab scale, among the values of coagulant dosage investigated (30-45 mg/L), the dosage of 30 mg/L associated to 2.7 mg/L of chlorine supplied the best removal results for turbidity, iron and manganese. The comparison between dissolved air flotation and sedimentation clarification in lab scale, when the best conditions of coagulation and flocculation were carried out to both processes, showed that the results for flotation were highly better than the results obtained by sedimentation, in terms of turbidity, color and iron removal. The high-rate DAF pilot unit with horizontal flow showed high clarification efficiency after previous adaptation of the conditions of chemical oxidation, coagulation and flocculation, as investigated at the lab essays. The unit operated with excellent performance using high rates up to 39 m/h, since it was supplied 4.3 g of air/m3 of water and flocculation time of 20 minutes. The sand bed unit of rapid filtration showed high performance in removal of turbidity (around 0.40 uT), color (< 2 uC), iron (around 0.10 mg/L) and manganese (0.02 mg/L), with 4 hours of filtration, when rates from 13 to 39 m/h were used in the high-rate DAF pilot unit. This fact confirms that the use of the high-rate DAF pilot unit with rates up to 39 m/h is feasible with high efficiency as a pre-clarification to the water evaluated.