The utilisation of estuary headwater environments by young estuary- and marine-spawned fish species was investigated together with the effects of riverflow alteration, in-stream barrier effects and non-native ichthyofauna on the nursery function of these habitats. The distribution and abundance of young estuary- and marine-spawned fish were sampled using seine and fyke nets in the headwater environments of four permanently open Eastern Cape systems, namely the Great Fish, Kowie, Kariega and Sundays Estuaries. Within the suite of study systems, the first of two case studies focussed on barrier effects of in-stream structures on fish migration. This was undertaken in the Sundays River. In the second case study, predation and competition dynamics of the non-native piscivorous Micropterus salmoides on estuary-dependent fish was investigated in the estuary headwater regions of the Kowie River system. In all four estuaries, young estuary-spawned fish species dominated the ichthyofaunal community followed by marine-spawned species, despite varied freshwater inflow resulting in headwaters varying in salinity from fresh to hypersaline. Fish community structure however, differed largely between estuaries, with both freshwater abstraction and unnatural elevation of freshwater into estuaries, as a result of inter-basin transfers, affecting these communities. In-stream structures were found to effect upstream movement of fish in two ways, dependent on the type of barrier. Partial (size-dependent) and complete (species-dependent) restriction to upstream migration of fish by causeway-type instream structures were observed. Weir-type in-stream structures acted as a complete barrier to most species, regardless of fish size. Predation of estuary- and marine-spawned fish species by large sized M. salmoides was recorded, although these fish did not contribute significantly to their diet during this study. However, the main dietary components found in smaller sized M. salmoides stomachs overlap with those of juvenile estuary- and marinespawned fish species, suggesting feeding competition between the juveniles of indigenous and non-native fish species.

The introduced common warthog, Phacochoerus africanus, in the Eastern Cape is increasing rapidly both in numbers and distribution, despite attempts by landowners to reduce numbers and exclude warthogs. These control attempts are motivated by concerns over the impacts of warthogs, on vegetation, soil and other animal species. This expansion of warthog populations is paradoxical given that a species of warthog occurred historically in this part of the world, apparently at low densities and was wiped out in the mid-1800s. The question therefore arises as to why warthogs are able to overcome population regulation attempts now, and this becomes an invasive species issue as the species now occurring in the Eastern Cape is in fact an introduced species. The objectives of the study were to investigate the status of warthogs as an introduced invasive species in the Eastern Cape by documenting the rate and direction of population expansion, ecological impacts and possible dietary shift of the introduced species, P. africanus compared to the extinct species P. aethiopicus. The research approach adapted here was to test the hypotheses that, (1) the success of P. africanus in the Eastern Cape reflects dietary differences of the two species based on observations of different dental adaptations, as P. africanus has functional incisors, which are absent in P. aethiopicus. Stable carbon isotope analysis of the tooth enamel was used to determine the diet of the two species. (2) Common warthogs are specialized grazers and will impact on a limited range of grass species, this hypothesis was addressed by describing the diet of common warthogs in one site in the Eastern Cape to identify plant species at risk due to invasion by P. africanus, and microhistological faecal analysis was used. (3) Common warthogs have successfully expanded their range in the Eastern Cape since their introduction and are now showing impact, this was addressed by describing the range of expansion of P. africanus in the Eastern Cape, as well as reviewing landowner perceptions of the impacts of warthogs, this was based on questionnaire surveys distributed in the Sundays and the Fish River valleys. The results of the study showed that there are differences in the diet of Cape warthog P. aethiopicus and common warthog P. africanus. The Cape warthog was largely a grazer (86 percent C4 grasses in their diet), while P. africanus is also a grazer (71 percent of C4 grasses in their diet), but with a larger proportion of browse in their diet. These results support the hypothesis that the presence of functional incisors in the common warthog might provide the common warthog with foraging advantages over the Cape warthog. This might be a contributing factor to the success of this invasive species in the Eastern Cape, and might explain the rapid disappearance of Cape warthogs in the 1800s, which coincided with rapid expansion of herds of domestic grazers. A total of twelve grass species are used by common warthogs and are therefore most vulnerable to impacts of this invasive species. Common warthogs are rapidly expanding their range particularly around the Sundays and the Great Fish River valleys and they are perceived by landowners to have impacts on grass cover, soils and fencing. This spread of warthog in the Eastern Cape exhibits characteristics of an invasive species. In light of the findings of this study, it is therefore important that government authorities and other parties concerned recognize that common warthogs are invasive in the Eastern Cape.

This dissertation deals with the nature of the black middle-class assimilation in the South African suburban space, a space that was the sole preserve of the white middle-class during apartheid. It explores the relationship between these races as they come to meet in this space and what new identities are being formed. It also explores the relationship between both the black and white suburbanites and the urban poor who stay in an adjacent area to the suburb. The study uses the Beacon Bay area, which is constituted by one of East London’s most affluent suburbs and a poor township, Nompumelelo, to show how the emergent black middle-class has managed to enter this space in the post-apartheid era. Previous studies by Richard Ballard (2004) and Grant Saff (2001) have shown how the white middle-class has always been against any form of race or class mixing. Within the suburb, the new black suburbanites in Beacon Bay appear to have been welcomed but with conditions by their fellow white counterparts. The relationship between these two races does not stretch beyond meet and greets and it is only in the second generation black middle-class that you find better and non-superficial relations with fellow white suburbanites. In the older generation, the generation that experienced apartheid, the relationship between these two races has been that of tolerance and serious escape of contact unless when necessary. The children of both white and black families, though, have a far better relationship in school and in sport than their parents. This has created another area of contact for both these races and it bears potential for meaningful integration in the suburban space. Externally as it relates to relations between the black middle-class and the urban poor, the findings show that these new black suburbanites express a similar discomfort as the white suburbanites about the urban poor’s presence in the area. This shows that the evolution of the Beacon Bay suburb, with its deep-rooted discourse of white middle-class exclusivity, has not been entirely about hatred of the urban poor necessarily but about an identity ascription of what it means to live in a suburb. Despite these realities traditional ceremonies organised by the black middle-class in the suburbs and the church appear to be playing a role in creating relations between these suburbanites and the Nompumelelo residents. This is why we have decided to use the conceptualisation of the 18th century frontier zone as the borders of segregation within the suburb and between the suburban residents and those of the township can be crossed and re-crossed.

This thesis presents aspects of Internet connectivity in rural South Africa. The work looks at government initiatives being undertaken to connect rural communities to up-to-date information networks. Various projects that seek to connect rural areas of South Africa, as well as other remote areas around the world, are discussed. These projects present many novel ideas that have been successfully used to link rural communities in remote areas with the information age. In particular, wired and wireless access technologies that can be implemented to connect remote communities to the Internet are discussed. A field test utilizing GPRS, VSAT and WiMAX was implemented in Dwesa-Cwebe, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. VSAT proved to offer better Internet connectivity in terms of throughput and latency. WiMAX was then successfully implemented to relay the signal over the remote area of Dwesa-Cwebe, thus effectively providing Internet connectivity to an area with limited cell phone coverage and no telephone lines.

1. The development of estuarine research in South Africa has been reviewed, and the present state of knowledge assessed. Little is known about many abundant estuarine species, and a previously unstudied prosobranch Nassarius kraussianus (Dunker), was selected for investigation. 2. The study area, a mudflat on the Bushmans River estuary, was divided into three habitat types: supratidal, intertidal and subtidal, each with a particular substratum and pattern of vegetation cover. The distribution of N. kraussianus is associated with the nature of the substratum and the degree of Zostera capensis Setchell cover. 3. A brief review of pertinent literature indicated the necessity of relating population parameters to environmental conditions. 4. The population biology of N. . kraussianus was investigated, and the size frequencies, sex ratios, and male/female size frequencies were recorded over three distinct periods: pre-flood, post-flood and recovery. 5. The Bushmans River flooded in July and August 1979, and the results of the flood have been described. The most immediate result was a period of low salinity, but the most persistant result was the deposition of silt, which had an important effect on the substratum and the Z. capensis beds. 6. The pre-flood population was characterised by patchy distribution, and by a large number of mature adults in relation to juveniles. Females were generally larger than males, and the sex ratio was 1:1. The presence of juveniles in consistantly low numbers indicated that reproduction may have been continuous, but that intraspecific adult/juvenile competition may have kept juvenile numbers low. 7. The post-flood period was characterised by extreme physical conditions, and the survival of a few adults. Juveniles were completely annihilated, and were absent until a few were spawned by the surviving adults towards the end of 1979 . Sex ratio was biased, and females predominated. 8. The recovery period began abruptly with the arrival of a large number of juveniles in the 2, 3 and 4 mm size classes. Recolonisation coincided with habitat recovery, and reqeneration of the Z. capensis cover. Recolonising juveniles grew quickly, reaching adult size in three months. After that, juveniles were spawned on the mudflat by the new population. During this period the sex ratio did not return to the pre-flood 1:1, but remained female biased. Males and females grew at the same rate over the period measured, but females were consistantly larger, indicating that at some stage female growth may be faster. 9. The recolonising juveniles arrived in a regenerated habitat, at a time when temperatures were high, and conditions for growth probably optimal. If intraspecific competition was a feature of the pre-flood population it would have been elimianted in the recovery phase, by the absence of adults. 10. N. kraussianus is apparently omnivorous and proabably not food limited. However, carrion, a limited resource, may be essential for growth to reproductive maturity. Adults and juveniles may compete for this resource, and any juveniles deprived of access to carrion may be stimulated to leave the parental habitat. 11. N. kraussianus is ovoviviparous, and carries up to 5 egg cases within the uterus. Each triangular egg case contains 1 egg which hatches after approximately 3 weeks, as a free swimming veliger. Yeligers metamorphose, and settle after 4-7 days, assuming a benthic mode of life. Ovoviviparity protects the developing embryo from the rigours of environmental extremes, and ensures that embryos are not swept out to sea . Additionally, veligers have a high probability of settling in the parental habitat. 12. This reproductive strategy has been compared with other prosobranchs, and the evolutionary trends within the Prosobranchia, and particularly the Nassariidae, have been related to their dispersal potential. 13. Developmental strategy is intimately related to recolonisation potential. Ovoviviparity, and the lack of pelagic larvae, did not limit the recolonisation potential of N. kraussianus, and recolonisation was probably effected by post-larval juveniles, which may disperse from neighbouring estuaries and coastal pools, by floating in coastal and tidal currents. Post-larval juveniles have two important advantages over larvae. They are less vulnerable to physical extremes, and they have a sturdy crennellated shell which probably affords them protection from predators. 14. Examples of larval recolonisation in estuarine populations have been reviewed, and the most fundamental conclusion of this work is that recolonisation is an important, and probably widespread, adaptation to estuarine conditions in South Africa.

The objective of the study was to assess the farmers’ knowledge and perceptions of P. incana invasion and impacts on rangeland, livestock production and livelihood in four communal grazing areas. Twenty households per village that own livestock were randomly selected to conduct an interview using an open and closed ended questionnaire. In each household, an old and knowledgeable respondent about P. incana invasion was used as a selection criterion. For scientific assessment of range condition, the experiment was conducted in a 270 m x 100 m trial plots that were established in 2014. The area was divided into 3 open and 3 fenced subplots each having an area of 45 m x 100 m established laid down a slope gradient. Each plot was divided into four equal subplots to apply the control treatments. Therefore, the trial layout was a stratified block experiment of four treatments replicated three times. The four control treatments applied to P. incana invasion were chopping and resting (CR), resting without chopping (RWOC), grazing and chopping (GC), grazing without chopping (GWOC). A step point method was applied in each transect to monitor species composition and P. incana cover. On the fenced plots two exclosures of 1mx1m size were randomly distributed to make sure that resting is maintained. Within exclosures 0.25 m2quadrates in each were put randomly to measure biomass. Density of P. incana was determined from 5 m x 5 m quadrates that were placed randomly within each sub-plot. The density and height of individual shrub plant was measured. All rooted live woody plants were recorded and counted in each quadrate. The results revealed that species composition was not affected (P>0.05) by the treatments applied. The herbage height and basal cover had greater values (P<0.05) under rested plus chopping (CR) treatment followed by grazed plus chopping (GC). Grass biomass production and essential nutrients showed a greater concentration (P<0.05) under CR treatment than any treatments applied. The results on perceptions revealed that goats had the highest mean household holding number than any other livestock species across the selected villages in all the villages. Respondents indicated that both goats and cattle had equal or more importance than sheep. Three out of four villages raised cattle primarily for income generation and secondarily for cultural purposes like slaughtering during weddings ceremonies, amazila and also during woman circumcisions (Ntonjane). Similarly, goats and sheep were primarily raised for cash income generation. The results revealed that livestock population decreased over ten to twenty years (one-two decades) and poor rangeland condition is assumed to be the cause of the situation as feed is the key factor for production. The area was dominated by the grasses rather than by browse woody species so the above results are possible as the P. incana is more competitive than grasses. It was concluded that P. incana is detrimental to both rangeland and animal production. Forage and animal performance as well as farmers’ economic status (livelihoods) were negatively affected by P. incana invasion and the scientific assessment reported it to be detrimental to agriculture. Thus chopping and resting (CR) treatment resulted in a greater improvement of the basal cover, biomass production, soil nutrients as well as grass height than the other treatments applied. Therefore it can be concluded that chopping and resting the veld invaded with P. incana can improve the range and consequently animal production.

Sixty one basalt samples from the Drakensberg Subgroup in the Barkly East area were analysed for major elements and fourteen trace elements viz. Sr, Rb, Zr, Y, Nb, Zn, Cu, Ni, Co, V, Cr, La, Ce and Nd . These data confirm the tholeiitic nature of the Drakensberg Subgroup. Geochemical differences in the major element compositions are small within the different units of the Drakensberg Subgroup. Small differences are also evident between these units. The trace element variation between the units and within the Lesotho Formation are more pronounced than the variation of the major elements. The Lesotho Formation samples show a minor vertical increase in value for the top half of the Naudes Nek section in Fe, Ti, P, Zr, Nb, Y, La, Ce and Nd . A decrease in value from the same position in Mg, Ni and Co was observed. These patterns of variation are interpreted as representing low-pressure fractionation of plagioclase, olivine and clinopyroxene. Differences between the units of the Drakensberg Subgroup are examined by using absolute trace element contents and interelement ratios. Ratios of incompatible elements differ for the different units leading to the suggestion that a heterogeneous mantle is the most likely explanation for these differences. A unique unit of flows designated the Omega Formation is examined. The basal massive unit displays an unusual pattern of variation with height which suggests an origin through two different differentiation mechanisms. The data from this thesis are compared with those of Cox and Hornung (1966) on the central Lesotho basalts, Bristow (1976) on the southern Lebombo basalts and Robey (1976) on the Karroo dolerites of the Eastern Cape. The geochemical comparison between the lavas of the Lesotho Formation in the Barkly East area, central Lesotho and the Karroo dolerites show no major differences. However the southern Lebombo basalts show an enrichment in Sr and depletion in Cr.

Aspects of the life history of Myxus capensis which were likely to be most affected by man-induced habitat changes, were studied in the eastern Cape. Myxus capensis was found to be specialized for a catadromous life history. The fry migrate into freshwater reaches of rivers within a few months of being spawned at sea and return to an estuarine or marine environment when maximum size has been attained and large energy reserves necessary for spawning have been accumulated. Myxus capensis penetrates considerable distances up eastern Cape rivers and although present in the upper reaches of some estuaries, is only common in freshwater-dominated systems. Myxus capensis has adapted its life history style in a number of ways to overcome the constraints associated with the spatial separation of the freshwater feeding areas and the marine spawning grounds in a region prone to droughts and erratic river flow. Research on the more estuarine-dependent Mugil cephalus, which is also found in the freshwater reaches of eastern Cape rivers, enabled useful comparisons to be drawn. As the latter species is not dependent on a freshwater phase in its life cycle, it is subject to different selection pressures. This comparative approach gave insights into the adaptive significance of the life history tactics of Myxus capensis. Myxus capensis displays a number of life history tactics characteristic of migratory fish species which are thought to increase population fecundity by increasing the number of large females and hence maximizing egg production. These include a sex ratio in favour of females, faster female growth, females remaining longer in the freshwater feeding areas and reaching a larger ultimate size. Possible adaptations to the periodic isolation of the feeding and spawning areas include: (i) the development of ripe gonads only in estuarine or marine areas when access to the spawning grounds is ensured; (ii) year-round spawning and hence recruitment which enables the erratic floods to be used at any time for downriver spawning migrations and reduces the chances of total recruitment failure due to short-term adverse environmental conditions and (iii) a relatively wide range of size and age at first (and final) sexual maturity (2+ to 5+ years); this tends to ensure successful reproduction and recruitment in spite of a series of poor years, as well as dampen population fluctuations after long periods of isolation in fresh water. The dependence of Myxus capensis on the freshwater reaches of eastern Cape rivers makes this species vulnerable to man-induced habitat changes. The erection of barriers to migration has cut off large stretches of suitable habitat and almost completely eliminated Myxus capensis from certain rivers. This detrimental effect has been largely responsible for the recent inclusion of this species on the Red Data list of endangered fish species in South Africa. This study demonstrated the considerable fisheries potential of both mullet species and this should ensure that their conservation and wise utilization be given high priority. Management proposals include: (i) the netting and lifting of Myxus capensis over barriers to migration; (ii) the construction of fish ladders when feasible and (iii) the artificial propagation of this species to enable large-scale stockings of existing man-made impoundments as well as natural habitats to be carried out. It is predicted that the life history characteristics of Myxus capensis, which evolved in response to an erratic freshwater environment, should ensure that when man-induced habitat changes are rectified, this species will again flourish in eastern Cape rivers.

Cycads first appeared about 300 million years ago and historical data indicates that they survived fluctuations of global temperature and carbon dioxide concentrations and reached peak abundance during periods where temperature and carbon dioxide concentrations were much higher than the present conditions as well as the predicted increased levels. With Africa being one of the most vulnerable regions to climate change and in the absence of an evaluation of predicted impacts of climate change on cycads, this study aims to contribute to our understanding of responses of Encephalartos longifolius to increased temperature. Encephalartos longifolius (Jacq.) Lehm is an Eastern Cape endemic and like most cycads has been around for millions of years with very little change to its basic structure. Photosynthetic rates showed E.longifolius seedlings have C3 photosynthesis and even under stress they do not switch over to CAM photosynthesis. The photosynthetic rates of seedlings showed a typical C3 -plant type response under elevated carbon dioxide levels. Increased temperatures could be detrimental to the species but coupled with elevated carbon dioxide levels the growth of Encephalartos longifolius are postulated to outweigh the negative impacts of increased temperatures. Whilst climatic conditions in the Eastern Cape might not impact the abundance of Encephalartos longifolius, the species however is declining rapidly to the present near-threatened status. Demographic studies revealed a high percentage of juvenile numbers in the wild; however juvenile plants are impacted on by animals thereby jeopardizing their survival. Adult plants are heavily impacted on by animals; this reduces the probability of new offspring being produced. Cycads are also very slow - growing which is the primary cause of their ruin in the wild. Encephalartos longifolius grows at just over approximately 1 cm per year with growth being more rapid in the juvenile plants. Once juvenile plants reach approximately 60 cm they stop growing in diameter but only get taller. Seed germination is also a very slow process with an optimum temperature of 28°C and a growth medium of at least 50 percent moisture. Regardless of the Eastern Cape predicted to become the hottest province in South Africa as a result of climate change, cycads will be able to adapt to the changing environment and conservation plans should focus on animal and human impacts that are the major force causing decreasing abundance of Encephalartos longifolius in the wild.

The study was conducted in Eastern Cape Province to 1) investigate local people’s knowledge and perceptions on Euryops floribundus and 2) landscape distribution and effect of Euryops floribundus on herbaceous vegetation and soil. A total of 90 households who own livestock were randomly selected from the three communal areas, namely; Tsengiwe, Upper Mnxe and Manzimdaka for household surveys and group discussions. For landscape study, a total of about 5 ha of land were selected at Upper Mnxe communal area. Selection criteria included the presence of E. floribundus and different landscape gradients. A total of four 50mx50 plots were marked along the landscape gradients: Bottom, Middle, and Upper Slope and upland positions. To study the effect of E. floribundus invasion on the herbaceous vegetation and soil, a total of 4 ha communal land was selected in an accessible area which had a largely flat terrain. The area was selected to have adjacent sites with no invasion (< 5% shrub cover), light (5-15% shrub cover), moderate (>15-35) and heavy invasions (>35% shrub cover) of E. floribundus. The average household size in the study area was 6.8± 0.7. All people in the three communal areas unanimously ranked sheep as the most important species for their livelihood, but the ranking of cattle and goat varied among the communal areas. All elder groups agreed that Europs floribundus decreases both the quantity and quality of herbaceous forage as well as livestock production. Moreover, invaded patches create more bare areas which are responsible for the loss of top fertile soils and the formation of rills and gullies. The result showed that the total density of E. floribundus significantly increased from the topland (2301 plants ha-1) moving to the bottomland (4888 plants ha-1). Canopy cover was significantly lowest in the topland (17.9%), but the remaining gradients had similar cover. Grass dry matter yield was higher in the bottomlands and sloppy gradients than the toplands. Soil organic carbon was significantly higher (P<0.05) in the flat than the sloppy terrain. Soils from higher elevations (toplands and upper sloppy) had significantly higher N than the lower elevations (bottomlands and Middle sloppy). The lowest dry matter was observed at low invasion and non-invaded sites. Soil chemical properties were generally different from all density levels. In conclusion, E. floribundus encroachment was found to be major cause of decline in the peoples’ livelihood because as this reduces the vegetation diversity and livestock production, both of which are the major of their livelihoods.