There are many challenges that face individuals with disabilities and their families during the transition period from childhood to adulthood. As young adolescents exit high school many of their future transition options are influenced by their family context, especially the child's parents. This study investigates parents' expectations and aspirations for their children with disabilities in terms of transition outcomes in order to understand the needs of those parents in preparing their children as they exit school, and transition to adulthood in Kuwait, a country that has yet to address transition in its laws and policies on disabilities. The proposed study investigated parental expectations and aspirations in their child's preparation for transition. It also examined the role of some demographic variables found to be important in past research, such as parent's gender, age, education level, monthly income, child's gender, child's age, and degree of child's disability. These variables were examined in relation to Kuwaiti fathers' and mothers' transition expectations and aspirations in the following areas: future orientation, community resources, financial independence, employment, postsecondary education, residential and daily living, and social relationships. An overall finding of this study is that parents, who are younger in age, have lower income and education levels, and have a younger child with a less severe disability tended to have higher expectations and aspirations for their children with disabilities. Despite the older age of the fathers and their higher education and income levels compared to the mothers, both fathers and mothers had generally similar expectations and aspirations towards transition outcomes for their children with disabilities. However, mothers had higher aspirations for their child's social relationships than did the fathers, especially for their daughters. The best predictors for fathers' and mothers' expectations and aspirations for their children's transition outcomes included, fathers' education level, mothers' education level, mothers' income, child's age, and degree of child's disability. Parents' high expectations and aspirations for employment, postsecondary education, and social relationships were a promising theme as their children transitioned to adulthood. The results of this study have provided a framework for further research in the area of transition in Kuwait. Although transition is a vital area and concept that should influence national laws and policies, it still remains relatively new to Kuwait. This research study will potentially lead to an increased understanding of parents' needs for support services to guide them and their children to a smoother transition to adulthood.

In two experiments, I tested for the presence of conditioned seeing as a measureable behavior, which was measured by participants' accuracy in drawing a stimulus, and how this behavior was related to the demonstration of the naming capability. In Experiment 1, participants demonstrated a correlation between drawing responses and speaker responses in a test for naming (i.e., incidental learning of language) (r(10) = .702, p less than .02) . In Experiment 2, I tested for the effects of using a delayed phonemic response teaching intervention on the acquisition of the drawing responses. There were twelve participants in Experiment 1, six of whom then continued on to Experiment 2. In Experiment 2, I used a non-concurrent multiple probe across participants to test the effects of the phonemic response intervention on the numbers of correct listener, speaker, and drawing responses. The independent variable was the delayed phonemic response intervention to control for the presence of the names of the stimuli, which would be necessary for the demonstration of the speaker component of naming. Four of the six participants in Experiment 2 demonstrated both the acquisition of the speaker component of naming as well as the drawing responses as a function of the delayed phonemic response teaching intervention. All participants responded in one of three ways: 1) demonstrated both drawing responses and the speaker component of naming, 2) neither drawing responses nor the speaker component of naming or 3) drawing responses but not the speaker component of naming. There were no instances of the speaker component of naming without drawing responses. Results from Experiment 2 further supported the relation between these two variables suggesting the possibility that the drawing responses were a measure of conditioned seeing, and that the conditioned seeing behavior is related to the development of the naming repertoire as it pertains to visual object-name relations. Implications, limitations, and future avenues for research are discussed.

Children with autism often place increased demands on their families due to the nature of their disorders. Research has repeatedly shown that parents of children with autism experience higher levels of stress and lower levels of overall well-being than parents of children with other disabilities, or parents of typical children. Compared to research on Western families of children with autism, research on Taiwanese families is limited. In addition, the role of parenting self-efficacy and social support and their relationship with parenting stress has remained unclear in the field of autism. The purpose of this study was to compare parenting stress (as measured by the Parenting Stress Index and the Family Stress and Coping Interview-Adapted) in parents of primary school-age children with autism (6-12 years) and parents of adolescent children with autism (13-18 years) in Taiwan. This study also explored the relative contribution of the children's characteristics, including autism severity, communication skills, socialization skills, daily living skills, and problem behaviors, as well as parenting self-efficacy and social support in relation to parenting stress among parents of children with autism in Taiwan. Moreover, the mediating and moderating effects of parenting self-efficacy and social support on the relationship between behavior problems and parenting stress were also examined. Lastly, some qualitative data were reported at the end of this study to expand the understanding of the sources of stress that Taiwanese parents of children with autism may be experiencing. A total of seventy-nine parents of children with autism between the ages of six and eighteen years old participated in the study. In addition to face-to-face interviews, the participants completed four self-report measures and a demographic questionnaire. The results of Independent Samples t-tests showed no significant differences on the two parenting stress measures between parents of school-aged children with autism and parents of adolescent children with autism in Taiwan. The results of correlational analyses revealed that parenting self-efficacy, social support, autism severity, and behavior problems were significantly correlated with parenting stress for Taiwanese parents of children with autism. Moreover, in stepwise regression analyses, parenting self-efficacy, social support, and behavior problems were found to be the best set of predictors of parenting stress for Taiwanese parents of children with autism. A series of multiple regression analyses indicated that both parenting self-efficacy and social support demonstrated partial mediation as they both mediated the relationship between behavior problems and parenting stress among Taiwanese parents of children with autism. However, both parenting self-efficacy and social support failed to moderate the relationship between behavior problems and parenting stress. Lastly, qualitative data were reported based on responses to an open-ended question requesting parents to list the most important aspects that they would like to see change in rearing their children with autism.

I tested the effects of the listener emersion protocol on rate of learning across academic instruction and the emergence of Naming. In two experiments, using a delayed multiple probe design, I first tested the effects of the listener protocol and then tested for the emergence of the listener and speaker components for Naming. In Experiment I, the participants were three preschoolers with developmental delays who had a limited repertoire of listener skills and had difficulty meeting their instructional objectives. None of them emitted a selection or listener response following mastery of match-to-sample responses for visual stimuli while hearing the word for the stimuli they matched during the listener half of Naming probes. Prior to the onset of the listener emersion training, participants' academic curricula were suspended and they were immersed in learning instructional sets of listener responses. The instructional procedure required the participants to respond only to the auditory properties (speech sound combination) of speech presented to them face-to-face, as well as to voices recorded on tape. This was done until the participants acquired both accuracy and rate of responding criteria for all the sets of the listener emersion protocol. Results from this experiment showed that mastery of the listener emersion protocol accelerated participants' rate of learning (decreased their learn units-to-criteria) to meet instructional objectives. The listener half of Naming emerged for two out of the three participants. In Experiment II, the listener emersion protocol was used to test for the emergence of the speaker and the listener component of Naming for four preschoolers who had more vocal verbal behavior and faster rates of learning than the first group of participants. An additional novel set (two- dimensional stimuli) was used to test for the emergence of Naming. Results from Experiment II showed that the listener emersion protocol was effective in increasing the rate of learning for all participants. In addition, the listener and speaker halves of Naming emerged for two of the four participants.

Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) and intellectual disability (ID) exhibit impairments in social functioning (American Psychiatric Association (APA), 2013). Social skills impairments of students with ASD and students with ID should be addressed by teachers using evidence-based strategies (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2004; National Research Council, 2001). While several evidence-based strategies that address social skills have been identified in research (e.g. Reichow & Volkmar, 2010; Wong et al., 2014), little is known if teachers use these strategies with students with ASD and students with ID. The present study used a researcher-designed questionnaire to examine teachers' reported knowledge, use, and attitudes towards evidence-based social skills strategies. This study used word-of-mouth sampling, and was based on teacher reports. Eight research questions were examined in this study. The first two research questions examined if teachers taught students with ASD and students with ID social skills, and if teacher characteristics were associated with whether or not they had taught social skills. The next research questions examined teachers' use of certain social skills strategies, the location, time, and frequency of use of the strategies, and the effectiveness of the strategies. The next research question addressed barriers or reasons that teachers do not use specific social skills strategies, as well as the barriers or difficulties teachers experience with teaching social skills to students with disabilities. Research question five examined the resources and supports teachers identify as needed for teaching social skills. Research questions six and seven examined social skills characteristics of students with ASD and students with ID, and if the characteristics of these students were related to whether or not they had received social skills instruction. Finally, research question eight examined student and teacher factors that are predictive of the students' social skills. This study found that the majority of teachers reported that they taught social skills, and special education teachers seemed to be more likely to teach social skills than general education teachers. The most popular social skills strategies were prompting, reinforcement, and modeling, which were also ranked as the most effective strategies by teachers. The least frequently used strategies were Pivotal Response Training and video modeling. Teachers used social skills strategies most frequently in the special education classroom and during class instruction time. The most frequently identified barrier to the implementation of social skill strategies was limited time to design social skills interventions. This related to the most frequently identified resource needed, which was the need for more planning time. Teachers also identified the lack of social skills curricula as a barrier and a needed resource. Students with ASD and students with ID had social skills scores in the at risk range on the Social Emotional Assets and Resiliencies Scale (SEARS, Merrell, 2011), with the only difference between the two groups on the empathy scale. Two factors were found to predict students SEARS scores, which were having friends and more than 20 functional words.

The effects of a multi-component intervention on the directed communication between preschoolers with Down syndrome and their peers were studied. The intervention included (a) one-on-one training with a therapist using Enhanced Milieu Teaching strategies to teach spoken language and language on an SGD, (b) peer training including a short workshop about recognizing communication from the target child with DS and rules for talking to friends, and (c) a facilitated session with the triad in which the therapist prompted interaction between the target child with DS and the peer. Three children with Down syndrome between the ages of 43 and 56 months participated in this multiple baseline across participants designed study. Communication was measured during a 10-min therapist session, 5-min triad session and 2- to 5-min generalization session. All target children demonstrated small increases in their communication with the therapist after the introduction of the intervention. Results within triad sessions indicated a functional relation between the introduction of the intervention and a change in the unprompted, directed communication between the target children with DS and peers. Both target children and peers demonstrated some changes in their unprompted, directed communication during generalization sessions, although the data vary among participants. Modest results and variability in the data are partially explained by study procedures and strict definitions of unprompted, directed communication. Implications for practice include recommendations for peer training, measuring communication, and teaching social communication.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the long-term use of optical devices by individuals who participated in a school-based comprehensive low vision program focusing on use of devices, both near and distance. Thirty-seven participants (five non-users), ages 1828, completed phone interviews giving information on their personal characteristics, functioning with devices, and psychosocial responses to using devices. Thirty (81%) of the participants were enrolled in college or had graduated from college. Only 11 (29.7%) participants were currently employed. The most common near vision tasks were reading pages in a book and reading cooking directions, whereas the most common distance tasks were reading travel signs and viewing an activity in the distance. The 32 participants (86.5%) who reported using optical devices were positive about their experiences with optical devices, reported being comfortable when using the devices, and seemed to value their use of devices. They were less positive, however, about the use of devices to support independence. Confidence in using optical devices was associated with gender, central visual field, and years of device use.

Purpose. Black history as represented in social studies textbooks often lacks depth demanded by historians and authenticity required for cultural relevance to African American students. However, important Black historical narratives sometimes contain difficult prose and refer to times or circumstances that are far removed from students life experiences. In consequence, primary history texts may be excluded, or when included, may be taught in ways that seem irrelevant or uninteresting. Premised in research-based connections among self-relevance, interest, and knowledge, this study employed Writing to Read and Relate (W2R) as an interest-enhancing tool for generating knowledge from primary texts. Method. Participants in this study were 37 African American 8th grade students from a single high-poverty urban school. These students were randomly assigned to one of two tutoring conditions for learning the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845). W2R students outlined essays that compared their lives with that of Douglass, while Traditional Comprehension (TC) students learned vocabulary, reread passages, and rewrote segments in their own words. All students completed multiple measures of comprehension, knowledge, interest, and volition. Results. W2R students demonstrated significantly greater growth in cumulative knowledge about Douglass, evaluated Douglass circumstances as more self-relevant, and more often demonstrated their interest and volition by choosing to complete an extra-credit project focusing on Frederick Douglass. In addition, teacher reports indicated that W2R students demonstrated their interest through spontaneous student-initiated discussions about Douglass Narrative in and outside of their social studies class. Finally, W2R students comprehension performance did not differ significantly from that of TC students. Conclusions. W2R students outperformed TC students on measures of knowledge, interest, and volitional motivationmotivation that generalized to their classroom. As such, W2R has potential for teaching Black history to African American students in a way that is both academically rigorous and personally relevanta method that is both good to students and good for them.

The present study examined teacher characteristics that may impact teacher efficacy or distinguish between teachers with high and low efficacy in the area of writing. A random sample of 997 third and fourth grade teachers from the United States were sent a 118 item online survey, A National Survey of Teachers Preparation and Practices in Teaching Writing of Teachers in Grades 3 and 4, about their preparation for teaching, orientation towards teaching writing, attitudes towards writing and teaching writing, their efficacy and classroom writing practices. One hundred fifty seven teachers responded to the survey, 115 of who completed every question (response rate of 16% and 12% respectively) resulting in 129 missing items (1% of data). Missing data was imputed, where possible, resulting in a sample that ranged from 115 to 157 for the analyses. No statistical differences were found between responders and nonresponders. Results revealed three out of every four teachers received minimal to no preparation to teach writing in college. Teachers reported increased feelings of preparedness when post college experiences were considered. Overall, teachers expressed positive attitudes towards writing and teaching writing, but did not engage in writing outside of school purposes. Results indicate teacher efficacy and teacher writing efficacy are separable constructs. Teachers attitudes towards teaching writing were predictive of teacher writing efficacy, teachers reported use of classroom practices for teaching writing, and the amount of time students spent writing. Significant differences were found between low- and high-efficacy teachers. Implications, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.

Although the functional analysis (FA) remains the gold standard for identifying the function of problem behavior for students with disabilities, traditional FA procedures are typically costly in terms of time, resources, and perceived risks. The purpose of the current study was to replicate and extend a trial-based FA methodology that shows particular promise in the context of classroom settings. Participants included 4 teaching assistants and 4 students with disabilities and histories of high-frequency problem behavior who attended public elementary schools. Trial-based FAs were conducted in students usual instructional settings and outcomes were validated via subsequent contingency reversal intervention trials. Descriptive data on student problem behavior and environmental stimuli were collected prior to each trial-based FA to identify hypotheses and design experimental trials. Results of the current study add to the growing evidence validating the trial-based FA as a practical alternative to traditional methodologies that are difficult to implement in classroom settings.