Previous studies of response classes in children and adults with developmental disabilities have shown that continuous reinforcement of mild problem behavior or precursor behavior (innocuous behaviors that reliably precede the occurrence of problem behavior) often precludes or decreases demonstrations of functionally equivalent severe problem behavior, even when severe problem behavior continues to produce reinforcement. The purpose of this study was to expand such examinations to the effects of reinforcing existing mands functionally equivalent to problem behavior. First, parent-implemented functional analyses identified conditions associated with both increased problem behavior and increased mands in two children with autism. Then, parents provided the maintaining reinforcer contingent on child problem behavior alone or both child problem behavior and child mands in an A-B-A-B withdrawal design. The treatment analysis indicated that the same reinforcer maintained existing mands and problem behavior. In addition, parent reinforcement of child mands was associated with large reductions in child problem behavior even when problem behavior continued to produce reinforcement. Future research should investigate functional relations between existing mands and problem behavior in other children with autism, and examine whether interventions targeting functionally equivalent existing mands may effectively reduce problem behavior in this population.

Yules Q (YQ) and Contingency Space Analysis (CSA) are two methods of quantifying response-stimulus relations that have not been compared previously. YQ is a statistic derived from the odds ratio and is a measure of the sequential association between two observed events. CSA involves a comparison of two transitional probabilities and provides a visual representation of contingencies in operant space. We identified two distinct points in contingency space for which the YQ statistic was the same and attempted to approximate these points using concurrent schedules of reinforcement. We evaluated the effects of each schedule on response patterns in mice via an A-B-A-B reversal design. Inspection of actual contingencies revealed much variability within each comparison phase. Indeed, actual probabilities of reinforcement did not match the intended probabilities and thus were not sufficiently distinct to produce differentiated responding. Subsequent regression analyses revealed unexpected variability in the relations between each contingency index and responding among subjects. Results also indicated high correspondence between YQ and each of two potential measures of contingency strength: a difference in transitional probabilities and a ratio of transitional probabilities.

Multi-tiered models of prevention such as Response-to-Intervention (RtI), Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support (SWPBS), and comprehensive, integrated models of academic and behavioral support (CI3T) are being implemented in schools across the country in an effort to provide early intervention and evidence-based practices to all students. To determine the quality of implementation and make data-based decisions about student responsiveness to these models, it is imperative to know if and how well the models are being implemented. Current research indicates the behavioral components of the primary plan of these models are most frequently assessed using the Schoolwide Evaluation Tool (SET; Sugai, Lewis-Palmer, Todd, & Horner, 2001; Horner et al., 2004). Although the SET evidences reliability and validity, it is used to measure school-level rather than classroom-level implementation. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine initial evidence of reliability and validity of a tool designed to measure primary plan treatment integrity at the classroom levelteacher self-report over time (TSR). Specific research questions include: 1) What is the internal consistency, as measured by alpha coefficients, of the TSR?, and 2) What are the correlations between the TSR subscales and total scores with the SET subscales and total scores? According to our findings, the TSR demonstrated initial evidence of internal consistency as demonstrated by Cronbachs alpha levels ranging from .76 to .83. Further, we found the TSR and SET likely do not measure the same constructs as they were not significantly correlated. Limitations and suggestions for future research are provided.

Students at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) typically receive support to improve their social and behavioral needs. There has been relative limited attention paid to these students academic needs. Students at risk for EBD fall behind academically when compared to their peers not at risk for EBD. Effective interventions are needed to support students at risk for EBD academically, behaviorally, and socially. The purpose of this study was to provide academic, specifically in the area of writing, and behavioral support for eight fourth and fifth grade students with writing and behavioral difficulties using the Self-Regulated Strategies Development approach as a tier two intervention within an integrated three-tiered model of prevention including academic (Response-to-Intervention), behavioral (Schoolwide Positive Behavior support), and social skills components. Students learned an on-demand writing strategy to improve their number of writing elements, total number of words written, and writing quality. Upon completion of the intervention, students improved the total number of story elements. There were mixed results for the total number of words written and writing quality. Findings, limitations, and suggestions for future research are discussed.

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effects of a Responsiveness-to-Intervention (RTI) Tier II tutoring program on first grade students who are at risk for reading disabilities. Ten students (8 boys and 2 girls) received one-on-one decoding and fluency tutoring 3 times a week for 20 weeks. This case study describes these students who struggled in reading at the beginning of their first school year, the progress they made through the tutoring program, and the testing results at the end of the school year. The author also discusses the differences between the students who responded to the program and the ones who did not make satisfactory progress. A hypothesis regarding why the differences exist is also suggested. The current study increased the validity of the RTI Tier II decoding fluency tutoring program. The school-wide implementation of this tutoring program for at-risk children is promising.

For purposes of this study, I developed an OTL measurement tool called the Instructional Learning Opportunities Guidance System (MyiLOGS) to quantify the extent to which students with disabilities have the opportunity to learn the intended curriculum as measured by instructional indicators of the enacted curriculum. The methodology underlying MyiLOGS was an extension of the teacher logging approach via an online technology that provided teachers a self-report structure for logging key OTL indices concurrent with their daily instruction. Thirty-eight teachers across three states provided OTL data for 46 Mathematics and English/Language Arts classes and 89 students with disabilities nested within these eight-grade classes. Major findings of this study indicated that (a) students opportunity to learn the intended curriculum is highly variable even within the same state and subject; (b) opportunity to learn the intended curriculum for students with disabilities presents itself as differentiated opportunity structure that differs from the overall class; and (c) initial evidence for the predictive validity of several class-based OTL indices as measured by MyiLOGS has been substantiated. Specifically, the data indicated that teachers spent about two-thirds of their allocated class time on teaching academic standards, about a fourth on custom skills/activities, and about one twentieth on non-instructional activities. In addition, teachers covered approximately two-thirds of the academic standards based on an average of about 151 school days. With respect to a differentiated opportunity structure in general education classrooms, students with disabilities experienced less instructional time on standards, more non-instructional time, and less content coverage than their classmates. Lastly, several class- and student-based OTL indices were related to student achievement. A major implication lies in the development of MyiLOGS, which was used successfully to collect data on a range of OTL indices related to time, content, and quality. Evidence to support its feasibility, usability, and promise of MyiLOGS was provided. As such, large-scale research on OTL including normative studies as well as subgroup-specific investigations can now be launched.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relation between child intelligibility and caregiver responses in caregiver-child interactions. Specifically, this study examined caregivers responses to toddlers intelligible, partially intelligible, and unintelligible utterances and analyzed whether the responses differed based on childrens intelligibility. A total of 38 children between 17 and 37 months of age and their primary caregivers participated in this study. Two population samples were included: (a) 19 toddlers with non-syndromic repaired cleft lip/palates (CLP) and their caregivers; and (b) 19 toddlers with typical language development and their caregivers. Caregiver-child interactions in play-based clinic sessions were video recorded, transcribed, and coded. Standardized language assessments and language sample data also were examined. Three approaches to data analysis were used. First, a descriptive analysis was conducted to examine how caregivers responded to childrens intelligible, partially intelligible, and unintelligible utterances. Second, a multilevel analysis was conducted to determine if there were statistical differences in caregivers responses (e.g., questions or comments) to different types of child utterances. Third, a sequential analysis was conducted to analyze the probability of caregivers use of questions and related comments in response to intelligible and unintelligible utterances of children with and without CLP. Findings from this study suggest caregivers are highly responsive to toddlers communication attempts, regardless of the intelligibility of those utterances. Significant differences were observed in caregivers use of questions in response to unintelligible utterances by children with and without CLP and in intelligibility and productive language of children with CLP compared to children with typical speech and language development. This study was a preliminary study, which may serve as a basis for future studies investigating the caregiver language support strategies needed to promote optimal language development for children with high rates of unintelligible speech and low rates of spoken language. Suggestions for future research and implications for practices are discussed within the context of the findings and limitations of this study.

Limited social interaction typically occurs between high school students with autism and their general education peers unless programming is introduced to promote interaction. However, few published social interaction studies have been conducted among high school students with autism and their general education classmates. These few typically have involved considerable researcher assistance in arranging and supporting opportunities for interaction. This study represents a departure from previous interventions by teaching general education peers a strategy to prompt themselves to increase their interactions with classmates with autism. Three general education high school students were taught to set goals and monitor their interactions with a peer with autism in their classes. Goal setting was associated with increased social interaction among participants. Based on findings, recommendations are provided for future research and practice.

Using a national dataset, this study investigated the predictors of attendance and participation in transition planning meetings among youth with autism spectrum disorders. The combination of four variables predicted student attendance. Attendance was positively related to expressive communication skills, percentage of time in general education, and frequency of discussions at home about transition. Attendance was negatively related to parent involvement at school. The combination of five variables predicted active participation. Participation was positively related to self-advocacy skills, percentage of time in general education, and frequency of discussions at home about transition. Older students were less likely to participate actively than younger students, and African American students were less likely to participate than Caucasian students. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

In this mixed methods study, researchers sought to understand if practice-based professional development paired with coaching would suffice for teachers to implement an evidence-based practice with fidelity in Tier 1 while also differentiating to meet the needs of varying students. Three fourth grade teachers participated in practice-based professional development to learn a writing strategy called Count and Plan FAST that is based on self-regulated strategy development (SRSD). Teachers implemented the strategy with their classes to improve student scores on the standardized state writing test and data from four students (two classified as being below average in writing and two classified as being average in writing) in each class were collected. Coaches supported teachers by encouraging them to differentiate the lessons while maintaining high fidelity of treatment and making suggestions on how best to meet the needs of each student. Teacher outcomes were measured through qualitative observations to track instances of differentiation. Most observations were video recorded. Grounded theory was used to create a coding system that was then applied by an independent researcher for reliability. Student writing outcomes were measured using a single-subject (multiple baseline across subjects) design. Student writing was scored for story elements, length, and use of strategy where story elements was the primary measure used to move phases in the single-subject design. Results of this study were mixed. The six students who were classified as below average in writing showed growth in median scores for story elements from baseline to posttesting and the variability decreased in stories written by five of the six students. The six students classified as average in writing had varied results. Five of the six students improved their median scores from baseline to posttesting, but the improvements were minimal. Students who were classified as below average in writing also participated in short-term Tier 2 tutoring following Tier 1 instruction. Measures during tutoring showed improvements, but most student scores had a declining trend during tutoring indicating writing fatigue could have had an impact on their performance. The variability in the results have several important implications. First, it is possible Tier 1 interventions are not adequate for many students, including some average-achieving students, and careful consideration needs to be given to how to best serve students in the tiered model. There was also variability in writing prompts which may have impacted the validity and reliability of the scores as measures of student writing ability. Further implications, limitations and future directions for research are discussed.