Estudos têm demonstrado a importância da mitocôndria para a funcionalidade do espermatozoide, referindo-a como a principal fonte de energia para a motilidade e a homeostase celular. No entanto, para algumas espécies animais, estudos recentes indicam que a glicólise parece ser o principal mecanismo de produção de ATP para a motilidade espermática, superior à fosforilação oxidativa. Em ovinos estudos envolvendo o metabolismo energético do espermatozoide são necessários não apenas pelo seu interesse zootécnico, mas também como modelo experimental para bovino, espécie na qual este mecanismo é também pouco conhecido. Apesar da importância da mitocôndria para o metabolismo celular durante a fosforilação oxidativa, são produzidos metabólitos denominados Espécies Reativas de Oxigênio, as quais possuem um papel fundamental em diversos processos fisiológicos. No entanto, um eventual desequilíbrio entre a produção de EROs e os mecanismos antioxidantes caracteriza o estresse oxidativo, que pode ser letal para as células espermáticas. Ademais, estudos anteriores relacionam as disfunções mitocondriais causadas pela criopreservação espermática ao estresse oxidativo e a diminuição da atividade mitocondrial. Desta forma, acreditamos que injúrias mitocondriais durante a criopreservação são a origem da produção excessiva de fatores pró-oxidativos e, em última análise, causadores dos danos espermáticos pós-descongelação e diminuição da motilidade. Em face do exposto, a hipótese central do presente experimento é que o espermatozoide ovino, após despolarização mitocondrial por desacoplamento da fosforilazação oxidativa e suplementação para a glicólise, é capaz de manter a produção de ATP e, consequentemente, a motilidade espermática. Ainda, um leve desacoplamento mitocondrial é benéfico para os espermatozoides durante a criopreservação por diminuir as crioinjúrias mediadas por disrupções mitocondriais. Em relação aos nossos estudos de fisiologia, observamos no experimento 1 que os espermatozoides ovinos, mesmo apresentando suas mitocôndrias despolarizadas são capazes de manter a motilidade total. Este resultado nos sugere que a via glicolítica possivelmente é capaz de manter a motilidade espermática. Por outro lado, o desacolpamento mitocondrial alterou os padrões do movimento espermático, nos sugerindo que a mitocôndria possui um papel mais importante na qualidade do movimento espermático do que na motilidade total. Ainda, no experimento 2 observamos que a via glicolítica, após ser estimulada, é capaz de manter os níveis de ATP, os padrões de cinética espermática e a homeostase oxidativa dos espermatozoides epididimários bovinos submetidos ao desacoplamento mitocondrial. Em relação ao nosso estudo aplicado (experimento 3), observamos que os espermatozoides ovinos criopreservados submetidos à um leve desacoplamento mitocondrial concomitantemente à estimulação da via glicolítica apresentaram maior motilidade, menor peroxidação lipídica, menor susceptibilidade da cromatina à denaturação ácida e maior potencial de membrana mitocondrial. Estes resultados nos indicam que um leve desacoplamento mitocondrial durante a criopreservação espermática é capaz de proteger as mitocôndrias contra as crioinjúrias e consequentemente melhorar a qualidade espermática pós-descongelação. / Studies have demonstrated the importance of mitochondria in the sperm functionality, referring to it as the main source of energy for motility and cellular homeostasis. However, for some animal species, recent studies indicate that glycolysis seems to be the main mechanism ATP production for sperm motility, higher than the oxidative phosphorylation. In ovine studies involving energy metabolism of sperm are required not only for their livestock interest, but also as an experimental model for bovine species in which this mechanism is also unknown. Despite the importance of mitochondria for cellular metabolism during oxidative phosphorylation, they are produced metabolites called reactive oxygen species, which have a key role in many physiological processes. However, any imbalance between ROS and antioxidant mechanisms characterizes oxidative stress, which may be lethal for the sperm cells. Moreover, previous studies relate to mitochondrial dysfunction caused by oxidative stress on sperm cryopreservation and decreased mitochondrial activity. Thus, we believe that mitochondrial injury during cryopreservation are the source of excessive production of pro-oxidative factors and ultimately, causing the post-thaw sperm damage and decrease in motility. In view of the above, the central hypothesis of this experiment is that the ovine sperm after mitochondrial depolarization by uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis supplementation is capable of maintaining the ATP production and consequently sperm motility. Additionally, a mild mitochondrial uncoupling is beneficial for spermatozoa during cryopreservation by decreasing the cryoinjuries mediated by mitochondrial disruption. Regarding our physiology studies, we observed in experiment 1 that the ovine sperm, even with their depolarized mitochondria are able to maintain total motility. This result suggests that the glycolytic pathway is possibly able to maintain motility. Moreover, the fact that mitochondrial uncoupling altered sperm movement patterns suggests that mitochondria has a more important role in the quality of sperm kinetic than the total motility. Furthermore, in the experiment 2 we observed that glycolytic pathway, after being stimulated, is able to maintain ATP levels, sperm kinetics patterns and oxidative homeostasis of bovine epididymal spermatozoa submitted to mitochondrial uncoupling. Regarding our applied study (Experiment 3), we observed that cryopreserved ovine sperm submitted to mild mitochondrial uncoupling concurrently with glycolysis stimulation showed increased motility, lower lipid peroxidation, lower susceptibility of chromatin to acid denaturation and higher mitochondrial membrane potential. These results indicate that a slight mitochondrial uncoupling during sperm cryopreservation can protect mitochondria against cryoinjuries and hence improve the post-thaw spermatozoa quality.

Sperm function has been studied in multiple research fields as it is essential to male fertility. In previous studies a variety of sperm traits have been examined as an assessment of sperm function. Among those traits, sperm viability, sperm motility and sperm metabolism are often commonly examined. However, sperm function can be influenced by both environmental and genetic factors. Specifically, nuclear genome has been demonstrated to play a role in sperm function, especially in sperm competitive capacity. There are increasing evidence for effects of mitochondrial genome on sperm function. Mitochondrial genetic variance has been suggested to affect sperm length and sperm viability in seed beetle and sperm metabolism in rodent. Given the coordinated collaborations between nuclear and mitochondrial genomes in OXPHOS, replication and transcription of mitochondrial genome as well as intergenomic signalling, potential mitonuclear effects on sperm function are expected even though empirical evidence so far remains less. A recent review summarised all the previous work on environmental effects on sperm and found that various factors affects sperm function but largely neglected in ecology and evolution. In the study, we used D. melanogaster as a model to disentangle both genetic and environmental components of sperm function at sperm cell, ejaculate and offspring levels. We found environmental effects on sperm function in D. melanogaster. Specifically, sperm incubation buffers affect sperm viability in chapter 2 and dietary PUFAs influence sperm volume and metabolism in chapter 4. Nuclear effects were found on sperm viability, sperm quality and male fertility in chapter 3. Mitochondrial genome was found to have an effect on sperm function, i.e. sperm viability and sperm quality differed among mitochondrial haplotypes examined. In addition, sperm function was further modified by the interaction of nuclear and mitochondrial genomes in ageing male. Sperm quality and fertilization success were suggested to be dependent on age-related mitonuclear interaction in chapter 3. Moreover, we examined the mitonuclear coadaptation hypothesis in the function of D. melanogaster sperm. No evidence for mitonuclear coadaptation hypothesis was found for sperm function in D. melanogaster as there were no difference between coadapted and non-coadapted lines in sperm traits examined. Lastly, we found that sperm viability, sperm quality and sperm metabolic rate cannot predict male fertility in D. melanogaster as correlation analysis revealed no relationship between them. Our experiment explored and disentangled the genetic and environmental components of sperm function at multiple levels in D.melanogaster systematically. Our results suggested that both mitochondrial and nuclear genome as well as the interaction between them play a role in sperm function in D. melanogaster. In addition to genetic components, our findings revealed environmental components of Drosophila sperm and suggested that it was phenotypic plastic.

When two alleles carried by a heterozygote are transmitted unequally to the zygote at the time of fertilization, transmission ratio distortion occurs. The best studied example of this phenomenon in mammals is t-haplotype in mice. The mouse t-haplotype is a selfish variant region on chromosome 17, in nature transmitted as a unit. Male mice homozygous for t haplotype are sterile, but heterozygotes transmit the t haplotype up to 99% of their progeny. This is believed to be caused by motility differences between sperm carrying the t haplotype and wild-type sperm from the same heterozygous male. The concrete mechanism of the postulated sperm competition in favour of t haplotype carrying sperm was so far not fully illuminated. During this project, we worked with the hypothesis that the differences in sperm motility putatively responsible for transmission ratio distortion are triggered, at least in part, by metabolic causes. Our results from ATP and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) comparison indeed suggest that there are metabolic dissimilarities in sperm from the different genotypes of t (t/t, t/+, +/+). Specifically, our data show that there is significantly less ATP in t/t sperm when compared to the other two genotypes. Likewise, sperm from t/t mice also seem to have lower MMP, suggesting that...

<p>Numerous studies on mammalian spermatozoa have reported large variations in the dimensions of the main sperm structural components, namely the head, midpiece and flagellum. These variations in sperm architecture are believed to be adaptations for functioning of spermatozoa in complex environments outside the male reproductive system. The midpiece of the mammalian&nbsp / permatozoon contains a varied number of mitochondria, but the reason for the marked difference in the size and structure of this sperm component is not clear. This study&nbsp / confirmed the variations in the sperm morphometry of seven selected mammalian species and revealed unique features of the sperm midpiece and sperm mitochondria of these seven species. Evaluation of several sperm kinematic parameters revealed the unique swimming characteristics of the different spermatozoa. The importance of using standardized motility&nbsp / parameters was highlighted as well as the assessment of different subpopulations of spermatozoa in order to produce more reliable and comparable data. Investigating the role of sperm mitochondria in human sperm&nbsp / metabolism indicated that these organelles are related to sperm function in terms of sperm motility. Furthermore, it was suggested that glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration are linked processes and that both are important for the maintenance of human sperm motility. By optimizing and employing standardized experimental procedures and analysis techniques, this study was&nbsp / able to confirm the species specificity of almost all the sperm parameters evaluated, while also elucidating the phylogenetic relatedness of the non-human primate species. In conclusion, the present study has confirmed that the various midpiece morphometry parameters are related to the remaining sperm morphometry parameters as well as to the sperm kinematic parameters.&nbsp / These proposed associations between the various sperm parameters were used to explain the sperm velocity of two hypothetical and morphologically different sperm structures. Therefore, the results of the current study support the idea of co-evolution between sperm components in mammalian spermatozoa and propose that the midpiece morphometry parameters that are selected for in these spermatozoa are midpiece volume, total number of mitochondrial gyres, thickness of the mitochondrial sheath and mitochondrial height.</p>

<p>Numerous studies on mammalian spermatozoa have reported large variations in the dimensions of the main sperm structural components, namely the head, midpiece and flagellum. These variations in sperm architecture are believed to be adaptations for functioning of spermatozoa in complex environments outside the male reproductive system. The midpiece of the mammalian&nbsp / permatozoon contains a varied number of mitochondria, but the reason for the marked difference in the size and structure of this sperm component is not clear. This study&nbsp / confirmed the variations in the sperm morphometry of seven selected mammalian species and revealed unique features of the sperm midpiece and sperm mitochondria of these seven species. Evaluation of several sperm kinematic parameters revealed the unique swimming characteristics of the different spermatozoa. The importance of using standardized motility&nbsp / parameters was highlighted as well as the assessment of different subpopulations of spermatozoa in order to produce more reliable and comparable data. Investigating the role of sperm mitochondria in human sperm&nbsp / metabolism indicated that these organelles are related to sperm function in terms of sperm motility. Furthermore, it was suggested that glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration are linked processes and that both are important for the maintenance of human sperm motility. By optimizing and employing standardized experimental procedures and analysis techniques, this study was&nbsp / able to confirm the species specificity of almost all the sperm parameters evaluated, while also elucidating the phylogenetic relatedness of the non-human primate species. In conclusion, the present study has confirmed that the various midpiece morphometry parameters are related to the remaining sperm morphometry parameters as well as to the sperm kinematic parameters.&nbsp / These proposed associations between the various sperm parameters were used to explain the sperm velocity of two hypothetical and morphologically different sperm structures. Therefore, the results of the current study support the idea of co-evolution between sperm components in mammalian spermatozoa and propose that the midpiece morphometry parameters that are selected for in these spermatozoa are midpiece volume, total number of mitochondrial gyres, thickness of the mitochondrial sheath and mitochondrial height.</p>

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Numerous studies on mammalian spermatozoa have reported large variations in the dimensions of the main sperm structural components, namely the head, midpiece and flagellum. These variations in sperm architecture are believed to be adaptations for functioning of spermatozoa in complex environments outside the male reproductive system. The midpiece of the mammalian permatozoon contains a varied number of mitochondria, but the reason for the marked difference in the size and structure of this sperm component is not clear. This study confirmed the variations in the sperm morphometry of seven selected mammalian species and revealed unique features of the sperm midpiece and sperm mitochondria of these seven species. Evaluation of several sperm kinematic parameters revealed the unique swimming characteristics of the different spermatozoa. The importance of using standardized motility parameters was highlighted as well as the assessment of different subpopulations of spermatozoa in order to produce more reliable and comparable data. Investigating the role of sperm mitochondria in human sperm metabolism indicated that these organelles are related to sperm function in terms of sperm motility. Furthermore, it was suggested that glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration are linked processes and that both are important for the maintenance of human sperm motility. By optimizing and employing standardized experimental procedures and analysis techniques, this study was able to confirm the species specificity of almost all the sperm parameters evaluated, while also elucidating the phylogenetic relatedness of the non-human primate species. In conclusion, the present study has confirmed that the various midpiece morphometry parameters are related to the remaining sperm morphometry parameters as well as to the sperm kinematic parameters. These proposed associations between the various sperm parameters were used to explain the sperm velocity of two hypothetical and morphologically different sperm structures. Therefore, the results of the current study support the idea of co-evolution between sperm components in mammalian spermatozoa and propose that the midpiece morphometry parameters that are selected for in these spermatozoa are midpiece volume, total number of mitochondrial gyres, thickness of the mitochondrial sheath and mitochondrial height. / South Africa

Female mating rates vary widely, even among closely related species, but the reasons for this variation are not fully understood. Across Drosophila species, female mating frequencies are positively associated with sperm length. This association may be due in part to sperm limitation, with longer-spermed species transferring fewer sperm, or to cryptic female choice. However, a previously overlooked factor is sperm metabolic rate, which may correlate with sperm length. If faster-metabolizing sperm accumulate agerelated cellular damage more quickly, then females should remate sooner to obtain fresh sperm. Alternatively, frequent female mating may select for increased sperm competitiveness via increased metabolism. Here, we measure sperm metabolism across 13 Drosophila species and compare these measures to published data on female mating rate and on sperm length. Using fluorescent lifetime imaging microscopy, we quantify NAD(P)H metabolism ex vivo, in intact organs. Phylogenetically controlled regression reveals that sperm metabolic rate is positively associated with sperm length and with female mating frequency. Path analysis shows sperm length driving sperm metabolism and sperm metabolism either driving or being driven by female mating rate. While the causal directionality of these relationships remains to be fully resolved, and the effect of sperm metabolism on sperm aging and/or sperm competitiveness remains to be established, our results demonstrate the importance of sperm metabolism in sexual selection.