In this thesis, I investigated aspects of the multi-component stress and injury model, which Williams and Andersen (1998) suggested could be applied in areas beyond sport. Two studies (Studies 1 and 2) were carried out with the goal to develop interventions, which were tested for their efficacy in the reduction of injuries, in a third study (Study 3). The purpose of Study 1 was to investigate whether psychosocial factors, such as stress, anxiety, social support, and coping skills, could predict injuries (frequency and duration) among 105 ballet dancers (101 females; 4 males), using a regression design. The dancers were professional ballet dancers (n = 27), university ballet students (n = 19), and ballet institute students (n = 59), with a mean age of 20.46 years (SD = 5.50). They completed a modified version of the Adolescent Perceived Events Scale (APES) and Sport Experiences Survey (SES), which address life and dance stress respectively, the Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS), the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28 (ACSI-28), and a social support for dance measure. Frequency and duration of injuries were recorded for a 10-month period after completion of the psychosocial measures. From the correlation matrix of psychosocial scales and injury, I selected for regression analysis variables that showed at least moderate correlations with the frequency and duration of injury (i.e., peaking under pressure, goal setting/mental preparation, freedom from worry, confidence, negative dance stress, negative life stress). One regression analysis identified freedom from worry and confidence as significant predictors for frequency of injury. A second regression analysis identified freedom from worry and negative dance stress as significant predictors for duration of injury. In Study 2, I examined the sources of stress and coping strategies of Korean professional ballet dancers, using in-depth interviews. Dancers (N = 20) were interviewed to identify the stressors they experienced and the coping strategies they used during practice or performance. Using inductive content analysis, I identified four major sources of stress that emerged from the data: physical (i.e., physical appearance, poor physical condition), psychological (i.e., desire, slump, personality), social (i.e., relationship with a dance director and other dancers), and situational factors (i.e., performance demands, finance). The results demonstrated that physical appearance (e.g., maintaining particular body type, keeping low body weight) was a preeminent problem. I also found that three general dimensions for coping were psychological strategies (i.e., individual cognitive and emotional strategies, avoidance strategies), behavioural strategies (i.e., dysfunctional behaviour, hobby activities, social interaction, dance related behaviour), and physical relaxation. The coping strategies mentioned most frequently in this study belonged to the behavioural strategies dimension. In particular, the dancers employed dysfunctional behaviour (e.g., overeating, drinking alcohol) to cope with stress. Identification of sources of stress and coping strategies not only help to identify the specific stressors and coping skills surrounding dance environments, but also provide a basis for designing intervention programs, which may help reduce stress through developing coping skills. The purpose of Study 3, the final study, was to examine the effects of two psychological interventions designed to prevent injury among dancers by enhancing coping skills. Participants were 35 ballet dancers. They were assigned to three conditions, control (n = 12), autogenic training (n = 12), and a broad-based coping skills condition, including autogenic training, imagery, and self-talk (n = 11). The 12-week interventions were designed on the basis of quantitative and qualitative results from the previous studies in the thesis. For weeks 13 to 24, participants were asked to practice their respective intervention three times a week. During the 24-week period (12 weeks training plus 12 weeks practice) training staff at the dance academies recorded injuries on a record sheet each day. Participants wrote injury records by themselves for another 24 weeks. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and univariate tests for each dependent variable showed that the broad-based coping skills condition enhanced coping skills, in particular: peaking under pressure, coping with adversity, confidence and achievement motivation, and concentration. Separate analyses of covariance (ANCOVA), one using pre-intervention injury frequency as the covariate and one using pre-intervention injury duration as the covariate revealed that dancers in the broad-based coping skills condition spent less time injured than those in the control condition. Overall, results indicated that the broad-based coping skills intervention was effective for enhancing targeted coping skills and reducing injury occurrence among Korean ballet dancers, supporting Williams and Andersen’s (1998) model of stress and injury. Because the broad-based coping skills was an intervention designed for particular Korean ballet dancers, based on quantitative and qualitative research, this intervention program may not be applicable to Western dancers. For future research, I recommend the approach I employed in this thesis, as the basis for designing effective and efficient interventions for dancers.

The purpose of this research project was to provide an in-depth account of elite athletes' experiences of, and experts' perspectives on, overtraining and its negative outcomes. I conducted interviews with athletes and sports experts, including coaches, sport doctors, scientists, and psychologists across a variety of sports. The interviews were focussed on identifying personal and situational risk factors for overtraining behaviours and outcomes. This thesis includes discussions of the responses to the interviews from the athletes' and the experts' perspectives, with distinct approaches to analysing and presenting the interview data from these two groups' different perspectives. For the 14 experts, I carried out inductive content analyses of the interviews and presented the results in a tree-structure showing the major categories, subcategories, and raw data themes emerging from the data. For the 13 athletes, I used a narrative approach to analysing and presenting their stories, which I aggregated into three core tales, represented by three constructed fictional athletes. From the athletes' stories, I found support for the perspectives presented by the experts. I also uncovered, however, unique accounts of overtraining experiences that provided insight into the intra-psychic conflicts, sometimes obsessive-compulsive features, and complicated relationships of the not-as-perfect-as-perceived-to-be athletes. Taken together, both sets of interviews revealed that overtraining behaviours are significant issues in most sports, whether skill- or effort-based, which may go against traditional conceptions of overtraining. In the general discussion, I present a descriptive model of overtraining risks and outcomes, which came together from the synthesis of the athlete and expert interview results, and, finally, I discuss implications for professional practice and make suggestions for future research.

Endurance athletes may use hypoxic exposure, and high intensity interval training to improve subsequent endurance performance. Research on the physiological adaptation of athletes to these interventions has tended to focus on metabolic, haematological and respiratory measures. Consequently, relatively little is known, in well-trained athletes, about the effects of chronic intermittent hypoxia, acute and chronic exercise on skeletal muscle Na+,K+ATPase, buffering capacity and plasma electrolytes. Thus the effects of acute exercise and these interventions in well-trained athletes are the focus of this thesis.

Retirement from sport can be a problematic and traumatic experience for athletes. Retirement from professional horse racing can be particularly distressful for jockeys. This thesis describes how former professional jockeys' adjusted to retirement. The participants in the present study were 72 retired jockeys, who had been retired between one and forty-one years. Retired jockeys were examined in relation to physical, mental, and social adjustment to retirement. Adjustment was also assessed for the different forms of retirement, namely, voluntary and involuntary retirement. Adjustment to retirement of involuntarily retired jockeys was also examined according to length of retirement, that is, less than 10 years, between 10 and 20 years, and greater than 20 years. Adjustment to retirement was measured using the Retired Jockeys Questionnaire (Speed et al., 2001). Descriptive analysis indicated that retired jockeys experienced physical health problems (e.g., back, hip, arthritis), and mental problems (e.g., forming an identity outside the racing industry, emotional distress). In addition, jockeys experienced social problems (e.g., losing contact with friends within the racing industry, maintaining a social life within the racing industry). Inferential analysis was used to identify differences between the retirement experiences of voluntarily and involuntarily retired jockeys. In ail cases, jockeys who retired involuntarily reported more health problems than jockeys who retired voluntarily. Specifically, differences between voluntary and involuntary retirees were found for arthritis, F (1,71) = -4.59, p < ,001, d = 1.39, osteoporosis, F (1,71) = -3.74, p < .001, d = .82, immune system, F (1,71) = - 3.73, p < .001, d = .79, and kidney problems, F (1,71) = -3.62, p < .001, d = 0.77. Involuntary retirement was associated with a higher reported level of problems universally. Differences between the voluntary and involuntary retirees were also found for mental health issues, specifically for, identity difficulties leaving the racing industry, F (1,71) = -2.99, p < .004, d = 1.22, and identity opportunities, F (1,71) = -2.31, p < ,024, d = 0.94. Jockeys who retired involuntarily also experienced greater problems with social issues. There was a significant difference between voluntary and involuntary retirees for social support from friends, F (1, 71) = -1.95, p < .001, d = 0.78, social support from family, F (1,71) = -1.85, p < .001, d = 0.74, social support from other jockeys F (1,71) = -2.57, p < .001, d = 1.04, social support from the racing industry I: (1,71) = -3.68, p < .001, d= 1.50, social isolation F (1, 71) = -2.32, p < .001, d = 0.93, and social difficulties with old racing friends F (1,58) = -2.26, p < ,030, d = 0.91. Differences were found between the three groups of involuntarily retired jockeys, for joint problems, F (1, 58) = 2.70, p < .08, R2 = ,081, and back problems, F (1, 58) = 1.20, p = .30, R2 = ,039, showing that those jockeys retired for less than 10 years and those retired more than 20 years reported more problems than those jockeys who had been retired for between 10 and 20 years. There were differences for mental health issues between the three involuntarily retired groups, particularly for those jockeys who had been retired for between 10 and 20 years, who experienced more problems with identity after leaving the racing industry, than those jockeys retired for less than 10 years or greater than 20 years. There were differences between the three retirement groups with respect to social issues, specifically family relationship difficulties, F (I, 58) = 2.90, p < .06, R2 = .089, whereby those jockeys who had been retired for less than 10 years reported experiencing more problems. The results indicate that the type of retirement experience, voluntary or involuntary and the length of involuntary retirement had an influence on the adjustment to retirement for jockeys. Implications for professional and applied work in the area of career termination are discussed, and suggestions are made regarding future research on career transitions from sport.

This thesis comprises research that was undertaken between January 2000 and December 2004 into the organizational culture and identity of Fremantle Football Club, a professional sporting organization that competes in an elite national football competition, the Australian Football League. The thesis began with a review of the contemporary literature on the principal topic, organizational culture and identity. The literature was subsequently used to frame and explain the approach taken in the research, which was to explore culture and identity as distinguishable, inter-dependent concepts integral to the functioning of sports organizations. The justification for the need to explore their impact in professional sporting organizations, because of a gap in our knowledge, was also provided. The research was conducted as a single qualitative case study that enabled an in-depth investigation into how Fremantle Football Club's culture and identity were formed and how they influenced its structure, strategy, behaviour and performance. Significantly, the research covered the entire history of the club since its inception in 1994, revealing three distinct periods in which culture and identity were strongly influenced by the values and beliefs of the club's leaders, particularly the CEOs, as well as board members, senior management and coaches. The first period comprised a time of self-absorption with an inappropriate culture that saw it in frequent conflict with external stakeholders as on-field success eluded it. Despite establishing a strong and clearly defined identity, FFC's inward looking culture undermined its capacity to fully engage with its heavily regulated environment. Subsequently, the club became dysfunctional as little was provided by way of long term planning and direction. The second period was epitomised by a club that was heavily fractured by internal disagreements at different levels of its governance that undermined its performance and created a cultural vacuum into which it withdrew. Little progress was made as the club stagnated. Despite consolidating its identity, individualism took precedence over the collective good with scant regard for the direction or well being of the organization. The club emerged into the third period with new personnel at all levels of its leadership and management adopting a different approach to previous administrations. The club ii embarked on a journey of reconciliation with its governing agencies, and adopted an externally engaged perspective that provided the club's stakeholders with a strong sense of its future direction based on consultation and strategic planning. The results of the research show that organizational culture and identity are dynamic, fluid, systems that respond to the value and beliefs of senior leadership. Importantly for this and other sports organizations, the culture and identity are responsive to short term transformation belying previously held notions of cultural change as a long-term process. This was possible for two reasons. Firstly, because FFC was a small organization in terms of staff numbers, the dissemination of transforming values could be more easily achieved. Secondly, because it was a club with a short history, it was more amenable to transformation, with stakeholders using the dismissal of senior coaches as a catalyst for change. The results also show that organizational performance will flourish if both of the following two conditions are met. Firstly, culture and identity are fully aligned with each other and the organization's vision, which enables clearly defined and consistent strategies to emerge. Secondly, the aligned culture, identity and vision are consistent with the external environment enabling the club to fully engage with that environment.

Based on recently proposed definitions (e.g., Hall, 2004; Wang 2002), choking is defined as a critical deterioration in the execution of habitual processes as a result of an elevation in anxiety levels under perceived pressure. The self-focus model of choking (Baumeister, 1984; Beilock & Carr, 2001; Masters, 1992), distraction model of choking (Nideffer, 1992), and recently an integrated model of choking (Wang, 2002) have been proposed to explain choking. Predictors of choking are also relevant in terms of identifying choking-susceptible athletes. Thus, applied sport psychology techniques are important for assisting athletes in countering choking effects. The three interconnected studies in this dissertation were designed to further develop applied sport psychology techniques to predict and alleviate choking. The primary purpose of Study 1 was to investigate whether choking and nonchoking behaviour can be predicted using a battery of psychological inventories. Forty-six experienced netball players completed three psychological inventories and categorised as either choking-susceptible (CS) or choking-resistant (CR). Eight purposively sampled participants then completed a total of 180 netball shots each in a series of single-case A1- B-A2 designs, with the B phase as 'high-pressure' and the A phases as 'low-pressure'. Participants were interviewed upon completion of the netball shooting to investigate cognitions related to choking and non-choking behaviour. Results from Study 1 indicated that established psychological inventories, measuring trait anxiety (A-trait), self-consciousness (S-C), and coping styles, were accurate predictors of non-choking behaviour with the 4 CR athletes. The psychological inventories, however, were less accurate predictors of choking behaviour with the 4 CS athletes (predicting two out of four instances of choking). The 50% success rate is perhaps iii understandable given that even highly CS athletes are likely to experience choking infrequently. Using inductive content analysis, each participant's interview was analysed individually and a cross-case analysis was also included for the CS participants. The interview results indicated that the 2 CS participants who performed poorly under pressure used approach coping strategies, such as information seeking, to manage the pressure situation. Conversely, CR participants typically used avoidance coping strategies, such as blocking out the audience/camera, to cope with the pressure. Overall, the interview results corroborated the findings that the manipulated 'high-pressure' in the B phase resulted in increases in state anxiety (A-state). Furthermore, the interview added valuable detail about how participants responded in the A1-B-A2 phases that generally fitted with the responses from the initial battery of questionnaires. A key finding in Study 1 was that all participants differed substantially in their capacity to absorb competitive pressure and similarly their coping repertoire ranged greatly. Drawing on principles of Nideffer's (1992) distraction model and the qualitative results of Study 1, as foundations, Study 2 was designed to investigate whether a pre-shot routine (PSR) reduced choking effects. Five CS participants were purposively sampled (using the same inventories and selection criteria as Study 1), from 87 participants, to complete ten-pin bowling deliveries in a single-case A1-B1-A2-B2 design with the A phases as 'low-pressure,' and the B phases as 'high-pressure.' Five experienced tenpin bowlers completed at least 180 ten-pin bowling deliveries in a single-case A1-B1-A2-B2 design with the A phases as 'low-pressure,' and the B phases as 'high-pressure.' Three of these participants completed an additional 60 deliveries (totalling 240 deliveries) because they experienced a decrease in performance (i.e., experienced choking) in the B1 phase iv and were instructed to use the planned intervention (i.e., the PSR) prior to the B2 phase. The 3 participants that utilised the PSR improved accuracy in the B2 phase. The interviews, conducted after the 240 deliveries, indicated that choking effects were partially due to an increase in S-A and, in this regard, were similar to the results of Study 1. An increase in S-A coincided with increases in distraction or conscious processing of execution, and thus, provided qualitative support for both the self-focus model and the distraction model of choking. Participants also explained that performance improvements were a result of the PSR minimising S-A during the B2 phase. The reduction in S-A permitted other positive psychological outcomes to occur, including a decrease in the perception of pressure, decreased negative self-talk, increased concentration, and increased confidence. Thus, the PSR produced adaptive and relevant, task-focused attention. In Study 3, music was used as a dual-task intervention under pressure. Similar to Studies 1 and 2, I also re-examined cognitive processes and perceptions of pressure using in-depth interviews. Five purposively sampled CS participants (with selection criteria similar to those used in Studies 1 and 2), from 41 screened basketball players, performed basketball free throws in a single-case A1-B1-A2-B2 design similar to Study 2. Three participants showed evidence of choking by decreasing performance during the B1 phase. These participants were then instructed to listen to the lyrics of a song as an intervention prior to and during the B2 phase. These 3 participants either maintained or improved performance in the B2 phase. Similar to the qualitative results of Studies 1 and 2, participants explained that choking resulted from attention to the audience. Using the music intervention, in the B2 phase, resulted in decreased S-A, enabling participants to decrease explicit monitoring of execution and reducing general distractibility. The results of Study 3 extended the findings of Study 2 by identifying that specific interventions could facilitate performance or ameliorate choking. Based on the results of the three interconnected studies, and previous choking research, choking processes are relatively complex, and differ based on personality characteristics and coping strategies employed. Implications for theory, practitioners and future research on choking are also discussed.

Basketball is a sport with many complex demands that require a combination of fitness, skills, team tactics and strategies, and motivational aspects. However key areas that are likely to play an important role in a basketball player's success are muscular strength, fitness and body size. Methods of evaluating and developing these characteristics have been extensively tested in controlled research settings, but there is a dearth of research exploring the value of, and methods of improving, muscular strength, fitness and body size of basketball players within the demanding schedule of an elite junior development program. These were therefore explored in this thesis.

Background and objectives: Low back pain (LBP) is a common and challenging problem in primary health care. Many people consult osteopaths regarding LBP. The biopsychosocial model is significant in LBP research, highlighting the effects of psychological factors on the development and outcomes of LBP episodes. However to date there have been no studies carried out in osteopathic clinics to investigate these relationships. This study aims to establish whether there is an association between length of LBP episode, acute or chronic, the type of pain experience, depression, anxiety and disability in people presenting to a student osteopathic clinic. The results suggest that the population attending an osteopathic clinic with LBP do not fit the biopsychosocial model prevalent with current literature. More research is required in the future to confirm these findings. This minor thesis was written by a post graduate student as part of the requirements of the Master of Health Science (Osteopathy) program.

The aims of the present study were to: develop a portable and reliable fieldbased system for assessment of centre of pressure movement during the putting task; identify different putting techniques used by experienced golfers; identify the relationship between handicap and putting performance; identify the relationship between putting performance and putting stroke kinematics; identify the relationship between putting performance and movement of the centre of pressure; and to assess the effect of a 3 week balance biofeedback training program on subsequent putting performance and centre of pressure movement during the putting task. In order to enable data collection to occur on the golf course, a portable rubber mat containing 256 individual capacitance pressure sensors (novel pliance®, Munich, Germany) was validated for standing COP output against an AMTI force platform. Assessment of the equality of the output from both systems was assessed using the non-central F test. The peak-to-peak amplitude of movement of COP data in the medio-lateral (COPx, p=0.023) and antero-posterior (COPy, p=0.023) directions were found to be significantly the same. In-field testing required each participant (n=38) to complete five putts at a hole 4m away, and five putts at a hole 8m away. Testing was conducted on the practice putting green of a private golf course. The result of each putt was assessed by recording the distance the ball finished from the hole, as well as other descriptors of direction (left, right, centre) and length (short, long, holed out). Participants (n=38) completed these putts whilst standing on the previously validated mat. Video of each putt was recorded using a 50Hz video camera located perpendicular to the line of the putt. The video was later used to track the path of the putter head. The movement of the putter head was used to establish the key events and phases in the putting stroke – backswing, downswing, ball contact and follow through. Putting performance was assessed using exact putt result, absolute putt result and number of holed out putts. Players were initially grouped according to handicap such that there were low (0-9), middle (10-18) and high handicap groups (19-27). On putting performance, the low handicap group were significantly more likely to achieve a holed out putt at both the 4m and 8m putting tasks (p < 0.05). On the other measures some trends were evident but there were no significant differences between groups. In order to determine whether putting techniques existed, analysis of kinematic and COP data was completed using cluster analysis techniques. Ultimately, a two cluster solution was indicated as optimal for both tasks meaning there are two distinct putting techniques used by the golfers. At the 4m task these two putting techniques were identified as: 1. Less movement (relative to cluster 2) of COPx in the backswing and downswing phases with velocity of COPx at ball contact closer to zero (on average). Low COPx velocity. 2. Larger movement (relative to cluster 1) of COPx in the backswing and downswing phases with velocity of COPx at ball contact non-zero. High COPx velocity. In the 8m putting task, these two techniques were identified as: 1. Short, sharp with minimal COPx movements – a technique that involves comparatively smaller movements of the putter head and the COPx throughout the putting stroke relative to cluster 2. Velocity of the COPx at ball contact is minimal but is a heterogeneous mixture of movements away and towards the hole. Low motion. 2. Long, slow with greater movements of the COPx – a technique that incorporates larger displacements of the putter head and COPx throughout the putting stroke relative to cluster 1. Velocity of the COPx at ball contact is higher than cluster 1 but is homogeneous. High motion. On both tasks, players in cluster 1 had significantly lower handicaps than cluster 2 (4m task – cluster 1 = 12.4±5.9; cluster 2 = 16.4±6.6; p = 0.002; d = 0.63: 8m task – cluster 1 = 11.9±5.5, cluster 2 = 18.3±7.6; p < 0.001; d = 0.91) so would be classified as more skilled, however, no putting technique was significantly better than the other on putting performance. Importantly, all a player’s puttswere not necessarily classified into the same technique grouping. This highlighted the importance of treating each putt as an individual trial rather than using averaged data in the cluster analysis method. At the 4m putting task, the mean putt distance data were not significantly different for both exact putt result (cluster 1 = 14.0±44.5cm; cluster 2 = 25.7±44.5cm; p=0.22; d=0.26) and absolute putt result (cluster 1 = 36.8±28.5cm; cluster 2 = 39.5±32.3cm; p=0.66; d=0.09). Techniques were not significantly different (÷2 = 0.08, p = 0.78) in their ability to produce a holed putt. At the 8m putting task, both the measures of exact putt result (24±77cm vs. 2±71cm; p = 0.7; d = 0.29) and absolute putt result (60±54cm vs. 56±43cm; p = 0.11; d = 0.08) reveal non-significant differences between the techniques. Again, techniques were not significantly different (÷2 = 0.04, p = 0.85) in their ability to produce a holed putt. All players involved in the field based study were offered the opportunity to participate in a follow up study using real time biofeedback training to improve putting technique. Of the current sample, 7 players chose to participate in a three week training program followed by a re-testing session. The biofeedback training was aimed at minimizing COP movement during stance and the putting stroke. On re-testing, the sample of players showed no improvement in putting performance or COP related parameters. The effect of the training program on some players was to, in fact, produce a poorer putting performance and greater movement of the COPx during the stroke. On both putting tasks, there was a significant increase in movement of COPx during the backswing on re-testing. The effect of biofeedback training for improved putting performance was, at best, limited. A new field-based method for assessment of COP has been validated and established. Putting performance data provides evidence to suggest that handicap level and putting performance are related if performance is measured solely by the number of putts holed. Cluster analysis is shown to be a very suitable method for differentiating putting techniques. The movement of the COP was highly influential in distinguishing putting techniques at both tasks, but had no influence on putting performance. Putting techniques have not been described previously in the published scientific literature. Further field-based assessment of putting performance, especially during golf competition is required, along with a more detailed understanding on how far from the hole players of different handicap levels hit their first putts.

Whole body dynamics analyses are compromised by various error sources including body segment parameter (BSP) and ground reaction force (GRF) measurement errors. This research employed nonlinear optimisation techniques, attempting to account for such errors and, thus, improve dynamical representation of whole body movement activities. The first experiments demonstrated new optimisation-based integration approaches (IA optimisation methods) for determining whole body centre of mass (CM) trajectory based on double numerical integration of acceleration data derived exclusively from GRF measurements. The zero-point-to-zero-point (ZPZP) method of representing CM horizontal trajectory (King and Zatsiorsky, 1997; Zatsiorsky and Duarte, 2000) was modified by including a GRF measurement offset error term and other design variables in an optimisation process for determining CM trajectory relative to centre of pressure data. Much smoother, more realistic CM trajectory was produced by the new ZPZP IA optimisation method. New IA optimisation techniques for estimating CM trajectory during jumping activities were also demonstrated. The vertical dimension methods were all appropriate for determining transient jump performance parameters commonly calculated in jumping assessments (Hatze, 1998), including CM jump height, work and power. The final experiment presented methods of optimising inverse dynamics analyses by selecting optimal GRF measurement offset error terms and BSPs. Feasible and realistic GRF offset error terms were invariably produced. However, approximately 50% of all estimated BSPs were unrealistic under most tested conditions. Improved modelling and more contemporary motion capture technology may improve results, and may ultimately lead to the development of a versatile, relatively non-invasive and subject-specific BSP estimation method.