Includes abstract. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 66-73). / In an attempt to facilitate the recovery of th eplayers, the support staff associated with teams have used a variety of techniques with the goal of ensuring that the muscles of players have the best opportunity to repair before the next training session/match. Several different strategies are used by support staff. These include cryotherapy, contraxt baths, nutrional intervention, compression garments, massage, active recovery and non-steroidal anti-inflammatories. Ice/cold water immersion is a relatively new and popular recovery strategy derived from cryotherapy.

Includes bibliographical references. / Background: Endurance running performance is a complex interaction between training factors, exercise-induced muscle damage, and fatigue. The accuracy of prediction of running performance allows for the consideration of the effects of teleoanticipatory factors such as pacing and prior experience on performance. However, previous studies have not adequately considered the role of predicting performance outcomes before competition, and the potential influence of self-regulated pacing and prior experience on running performance. Aim: The aim of this descriptive analytical correlational study was to determine potential factors associated with the accuracy of prediction of running performance during a marathon race. Specific objectives: (a) To determine whether there were differences in training history, pacing, muscle pain and the relative perception of effort (RPE) in three identified groups that accurately predicted race time, performed faster than the predicted time, or performed slower than the predicted time; and (b) to determine if demographic characteristics, training and competition history, self-identified pacing strategy, muscle pain and the relative perception of effort (RPE) were associated with the accuracy of predicting performance during the marathon. Methods: Sixty-three healthy male and female runners were recruited through a short message service (SMS), word of mouth and at the 2013 Mandela Day marathon registration. Participants were included if they were over the age of 20 years, and were taking part in the marathon race. Participants were required to complete the marathon within the seven-hour cut-off time. Participants who had any lower limb musculoskeletal injury, medical condition or surgical intervention that prevented training for seven consecutive days in the three-month period prior to the race were excluded from the study. Participants who reported any flu-like symptoms during the two weeks preceding the race were also excluded from the study. In addition, participants with any missing race RPE or pain scores were excluded. Participants were allocated to one of three groups depending on their accuracy in predicting their final race time. A margin of two percentage points was considered as a meaningful difference in time. If the participants’ actual race time was accurate within two percentage points of their predicted race time, it was considered accurate, and those participants formed the accurate group (n = 16). Participants on either side of the two percentage points formed the fast (n = 21) and slow (n = 26) groups respectively. All participants completed an informed consent form and a medical and training questionnaire at a familiarisation session before to the race. Participants were also familiarised with the tests and procedures for collecting data during the race. During the marathon, muscle pain and relative perception of effort (RPE) were recorded at 0 km, 10 km, 21.1 km, 30 km, and 42.2 km. A short compliance questionnaire was completed when participants finished the marathon. Official race times were obtained from the Championchip® website. Muscle pain was recorded for seven days after the marathon. Participants were also asked to report when they resumed running training after the race. Results Participants in the slow group were significantly younger (p < 0.05), had faster 10 km PB times (p < 0.01), and trained at a faster pace (p < 0.01) compared to participants in the accurate and fast groups. Participants in the slow group had faster actual (p < 0.05) and predicted (p < 0.01) marathon times (p < 0.01) compared to participants in the accurate and fast groups. There was a significant positive relationship between actual and predicted marathon times (r = 0.71, p < 0.01). There were no significant differences between groups in muscle pain and RPE during the race; however there were significant main effects of time for pain (p < 0.01) and RPE (p < 0.01) during the race. Muscle pain and RPE were significantly increased at 21 km, 30 km, and 42.2 km, compared to pre-race values. There were no significant differences in post-race pain between groups, but there was a significant main effect of time (p < 0.01) as muscle pain was significantly elevated for three days after the race. This study was also unable to identify any significant demographic, training and competition history, or race factors associated with the accuracy of prediction of marathon performance. Conclusion: Linear increases in muscle pain and RPE were observed during the race in all groups. This study was unable to identify specific factors associated with the accuracy of prediction of running performance during a marathon race. However, it is possible that the slow marathon times and the low relative exercise intensity in all groups may have limited the effects of muscle pain and RPE on self-regulated pacing and performance. Future studies should have more stringent inclusion criteria to ensure runners are competing at moderate to high relative exercise intensities. In addition, future studies should carefully consider route profiles to ensure that the race profile does not potentially confound the accuracy of prediction of performance by limiting actual marathon times.

Background: A chronic ankle sprain injury is a condition that affects professional, amateur and social football players globally. Despite a large amount of research into the medical management of this condition, it remains one of the most frequently experienced injuries in professional football. A previous ankle sprain is a recognised risk factor for future lateral ankle sprain injury. No previous study has investigated the effects of chronic lateral ankle sprains on the cortical representation of the ankle in the brain. Aim: To determine if there are any changes in the primary and secondary somatosensory cortices of football players who have a history of recurrent ankle sprain injuries Methods: 25 professional male football players (13 previously injured, 12 noninjured) with an average age of 24.9y (+/- 4.49y) from a national first division club were recruited for the study. . All players included in the study completed an informed consent form before participation in the study and were declared fit to play by the clubs medical staff. Player demographics and training history were collected by means of a questionnaire followed by anthropometric measurements being taken. Tests used in the assessment of complex regional pain syndrome (Laterality Judgement Task recognition, two point discrimination and limb perception drawing) were used to assess for cortical representation changes in both limbs of injured players and uninjured players.

Includes bibliographical references / Background: The influence of professionalism has filtered down to junior levels in rugby union. The increased demands on junior professional rugby players has an impact on their fitness characteristics, training load, match load and injury profiles. Although many studies have been conducted on senior rugby union players, not much is known about junior players as they make the transition into the senior ranks. The aim of this study was to describe the training/match load during the pre-season and competitive in-season in a squad of under 19 academy rugby players and then to relate this to the injuries (contact and non-contact) sustained during the different phases of the season. A secondary aim was to measure the physical ability of the players through the season. Methods: Injury and training data from players in the Western Province under 19 Currie Cup squad (n=34) were recorded on a daily basis throughout the rugby season (42 weeks). The training load was represented by the time (minutes) spend in each activity associated with training, conditioning and match play. The players also underwent measurements of body mass, stature, body fat percentage, upper body muscular endurance (pull ups), and muscular strength (1RM bench press), sprint times (10m and 40m) and anaerobic capacity (5 meter shuttle run). All tests were conducted in January and June, which coincided with the beginning of pre-season and the beginning of the competition phase respectively. Results: Over the season 71 injuries were recorded, comprising 17 pre-season injuries, 18 pre-competition injuries and 36 competition phase injuries. There was no difference between the occurrence of contact and non-contact injuries during the different phases of the season. Although there was no significant difference between the injury rates during the different phases of the season, there was a significant difference between the injury rates in training (4.4/1000 player hours) and matches (74.1/1000 player hours). The most common body parts injured were thighs, hip/groin, ankles and shoulders, with injuries to the hand/finger and knee being the most severe. Muscles and ligaments were the structures that got injured the most. The average duration of days to return-to-play after an injury was 17 days. There were significant changes in the physical characteristics of the players in the six months between the test batteries. In addition to getting taller, players generally improved their fitness characteristics with significant improvements occurring in the bench press (8%), pull ups (113%), vertical jump (13%) and the 5 meter shuttle run (6%). Conclusion: The training load of the junior professional rugby players is similar to the load of senior professional rugby players. This represents a sudden increase compared to the previous year when the players were at school. A long-term research project with a database of rugby schools will assist in bridging the gap between the demands of junior rugby and junior professional rugby. Players joining a professional academy system after school need physical, emotional and tactical fast tracking as they are competing in a highly competitive environment for senior professional contracts. This accounts for the relatively high rate of injury throughout the season. Players need to be carefully monitored and managed during the season to detect symptoms reflecting poor adaptation to the training load.

Includes abstract. / Includes bibliographical references. / Patellofemoral pain syndrome (PFPS) is a common clinical condition affecting physically active individuals. It is characterised by pain behind or around the patella during loading of the lower limb. It is recognised that there are multiple factors that contribute to PFPS; however these factors are not well understood. There is equivocal evidence for differences in lower limb kinematics in participants with PFPS, particularly during the running gait cycle. The aim of this study was to investigate lower extremity kinematics during running in individuals with a history of PFPS compared to those without symptoms. Specific objectives: (a) To describe lower extremity kinematics during running for individuals with PFPS. (b) To determine whether there are differences in pelvis, hip, knee and ankle kinematics during running in participants with and without PFPS. (c) To determine whether there were any kinematic variables at the pelvis, hip and knee joint during stance phase of running that may be associated with an increased risk of developing PFPS. Methods: This study had a descriptive cross-sectional study design. Thirty one physically active individuals, who participated in at least two hours of physical activity per week for at least three months prior to testing, were recruited for the study. Fifteen participants presented with PFPS, and 16 participants without PFPS formed the control group. Participants were also required to have a Q-angle within the normal range for males (8.2º-14.2º) and females (11.4º-20.3º) respectively. Participants in the PFPS group were required to have a history of unilateral anterior or retro-patellar pain of non-traumatic origin that did not exceed a six-month period prior to testing. The participants’ PFPS also needed to be elicited during one or more symptom provocation tests, namely: resisted terminal knee extension, stair descent, or a unilateral partial squat. The PFPS participants had to be able to run without pain for a minimum period of 10 minutes, which allowed the running test to be completed without reproducing symptoms of PFPS. All participants gave written informed consent before taking part in the study. Participants were familiarised with all testing procedures. Participants completed medical and training questionnaires, and body composition measurements were performed. Sixteen retro-reflective markers were placed on anatomical landmarks of the lower limbs according to the modified Helen Hayes marker set. Participants were then required to perform a running test, which consisted of 10 sets of running at a self-selected speed on a 10 m pathway. Kinematic data of the pelvis, hip, knee and ankle were recorded by an eight-camera motion analysis system during each repetition of the test. The specific data extracted included range of motion at heel strike and toe off, peak range of motion during swing phase and stance phase. In addition, the range of motion travelled during stance and swing phases and the percentage of stance phase a participant took to reach the peak range of motion during stance phase were calculated.

Word processed copy. Bibliography: leaf 42.

Bibliography: leaves 77-94. / Patellofemoral disorders are amongst the most common clinical conditions encountered in the sporting and general population [8, 33, 68]. Patellofemoral pain (PFP) is usually described as diffuse, peripatellar, anterior knee pain [8, 61].

Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references.

Includes bibliographical references. / Several studies on European players at the elite or professional level have shown a high risk of injury. However, the studies used different data collection methods, making it difficult to compare results. This suggested a need to standardise the definition of an injury and method of data collection. There are no data on injuries associated with football in South Africa, which makes it difficult to develop an evidence-based strategy to manage injuries associated with football. Therefore, in an attempt to address the deficiency on soccer related injuries in South Africa, a Professional Soccer League (PSL) team (AJAX CT) was monitored throughout the season by the medical support staff of the team using the F-MARC data collection system devised by FIFA. The main objective of this study was to undertake a retrospective epidemiological study documenting the incidence of injury in this team and the exposure time (practice and match) of the players over a full season.

Includes abstract. / Includes bibliographical references. / Mature adults are at risk of an accelerated age-related reduction in physical function. Declines in aerobic power, functional strength, motor abilities, flexibility and health-related quality of life are thought to be primarily due to reduced physical activity levels with increasing age. Leisure time physical activity (LTPA) has been extensively investigated and is widely advocated for the preservation of function with ageing. However there is a lack of evidence regarding the relationship between LTPA and the individual components of health-related fitness, particularly motor abilities. It is therefore unclear what types of LTPA (endurance, neuromuscular LTPA or games) should be prescribed by health professionals for the development of health-related fitness parameters. Aim: To examine the relationship between LTPA and components of health-related fitness in healthy mature adults. Specific Objectives: (a) To describe the preferred mode(s) and weekly duration of recent LTPA in currently active male and female participants. (b) To describe the preferred mode(s) and years of participation in long term LTPA, in currently active and inactive male and female participants. (c) To determine if there were significant differences in anthropometry and selected health-related fitness components, in currently active and inactive male and female participants. (d) To determine the relationships between recent participation in different types of LTPA (endurance, neuromuscular or games) and total weekly duration of LTPA; and anthropometry and selected components of health related fitness in currently active male and female participants. (e) To determine the relationships between former participation in different types of LTPA (endurance, neuromuscular or games) and years of LTPA participation; and anthropometry and selected components of health-related fitness in currently active and inactive male and female participants. Methods: This study had a descriptive, correlational design. Healthy adults aged between 40 and 60 who either participated in regular LTPA or no LTPA, were recruited for the study. Participants were excluded if they had any acute or chronic injuries; or used any medication that altered heart rate or physical function. Fifty six healthy mature adults between the ages of 40 and 58 years participated in this study. Twenty nine had participated in at least 30 minutes of LTPA, three times per week in the last three months (active group); and twenty seven had not participated in LTPA in the last three months (inactive group). Data were collected in two sessions. In session one, participants gave written informed consent; completed a physical activity readiness questionnaire (PAR-Q) to screen for safe exercise participation; and completed health-related quality of life and LTPA questionnaires. Body composition measurements were also performed. In session two, participants completed a battery of physical tests conducted by a blinded assessor, including: cardiorespiratory fitness (2 km walk test); static and dynamic balance (standing on one leg, tandem walking backwards); agility (Illinois agility test); co-ordination (timed bouncing of a ball along a wall from a fixed distance); upper limb function (modified push-up test); lower limb function (vertical jump test); back muscle endurance (static back extension test); and flexibility (sit-and-reach test).Results: Recently active participants had significantly reduced body mass index (BMI) (p = 0.04), body fat percentage (p = 0.003) and sum of seven skinfold (p = 0.004) measurements, compared to inactive participants. In addition, active participants scored significantly better in the tests for cardiorespiratory fitness (p = 0.0004) and upper limb function (p = 0.01) than inactive participants. Active females had significantly improved cardiorespiratory fitness (p = 0.0002) and agility (p = 0.0004) compared to inactive females. Of the health-related fitness components, only cardiorespiratory fitness and back muscle endurance were related to recent LTPA participation. Motor abilities such as agility and dynamic balance, upper- and lower limb function were associated with long term rather than recent LTPA, particularly with long term endurance, games and years of long term LTPA participation. Discussion and conclusion: Active participants had significantly improved body composition, cardiorespiratory fitness and upper limb function compared to inactive participants in this study. These results support previous research suggesting that regular participation in LTPA may help to slow the age-associated decline in physical function. However no significant differences were found in motor abilities between recently active and inactive participants, and no significant relationships were found between recent LTPA participation and motor abilities. Based on the findings in this study, long term LTPA and participation in games are advised for the development of motor abilities and functional strength, in healthy mature adults. As this study sample reported mainly endurance LTPA recently and on the long term, future research should aim to explore the independent contributions of different types of LTPA (endurance, neuromuscular or games) on aspects of health related fitness. Such information may be very useful clinically to improve the accuracy of exercise prescription. There is also a need to further evaluate the relationship between long-term LTPA and health-related fitness in a larger sample of mature adults.