With increasing attention being given to corporate social responsibility (CSR) by scholars, it has become apparent that the focus has been somewhat one sided in nature, with the bulk of attention going to the corporate motives, processes, and outcomes of such efforts. Less prevalent has been a focus on the beneficiaries of CSR, and thus lost in the conversation has been the critical aspect of "social impact" of such activities (Porter & Kramer, 2006). The purpose of the current study was to explore the idea of social impact, by qualitatively assessing the outcomes of a golf management company CSR initiative within the elementary school system. Through a series of interviews with program stakeholders, secondary document analysis, and personal observations, the researchers were able to assess the impact on participants (N=23), make suggestions for improvement for the future, and ascertain the degree of strategic congruence between the program and the overall corporate mission. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2009. / February 5, 2009. / Social Impact, Corporate Social Responsibility, Sport / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael Mondello, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; R. Aubrey Kent, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Robert Brymer, Outside Committee Member; Andy Rudd, Committee Member.

This study is introduced with a review of Funk and James (2001), Funk, Haugtvedt, and Howard (2000), and Krosnick and Petty (1995), which provide the basis for measuring psychological commitment. It is proposed that a better understanding of the concept of attitude strength may provide insight into the antecedents and the primary evidence (resistance to change) of psychological commitment. More specifically, Funk et al. (2000) suggest that various attitudinal properties (e.g., knowledge, extremity, importance) may function as antecedents of psychological commitment. This understanding provides a direction for conceptualizing and measuring the factors comprising psychological commitment to a sports team. The conceptual model of psychological commitment to a sports team proposed that the antecedents of psychological commitment are represented by nine attitude properties, categorized into three strength-related dimensions: (1) cognitive structure - affective reaction, cognitive reaction, amount of knowledge, direct experience, and accessibility, (2) subjective beliefs - personal relevance, certainty, and importance of the attitude object, and (3) attitude valence - extremity attributes. The purpose of this study is to gain a better understanding of the antecedents of psychological commitment to a sports team through a conceptual model based on the concept of attitude strength, and the causal relationship between psychological commitment to a sports team and resistance to changing team allegiance. Based upon the results of the pilot study and preliminary analysis of the main study, accessibility, direct experience, and personal relevance were dropped. In doing so, the proposed model of psychological commitment was revised. The measurement models and the structural model were analyzed. The results of the measurement models indicated that the proposed model of psychological commitment to a sports team was confirmed as well as the results of structural model indicated that resistance to changing team allegiance was directly influenced by psychological commitment to a sports team. The findings of this study will contribute not only to an extension of the knowledge base of psychological commitment to a sports team in the area of sport marketing, but also to practical applications for sport-team marketers and managers. The findings of this study suggest several directions for future study. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2005. / November 18, 2005. / Psychological Commitment, Attitude Strength / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Leisa Flynn, Outside Committee Member; Jerome Quarterman, Committee Member; Harry Kwon, Committee Member; Joohyun Lee, Committee Member.

There is abundant research pointing out the physiological and psychological benefits of physical activity for children (CDC, 2010a), so providing opportunities for children to be active is necessary and beneficial. "Classroom Exercises for the Body and Brain" was developed in the state of Georgia by the HealthMPowers organization to help classroom teachers provide structured physical activity in their classrooms for their students that can be done at their desks as exercise breaks, used as energy boosters, or for rainy day recess. According to the HealthMPowers (2009) organization, exercise interventions or classroom energizers are practical and time-efficient ways to increase student activity time, help focus student's attention, and provide activity that is moderate to vigorous. Many of these exercise programs are designed with good intentions, but have little data to support their claims. The purpose of this thesis was to investigate the intensity levels of nine to ten year old students participating in a video classroom exercise program in a regular classroom setting. Twenty-five fourth grade students (10 females and 15 males), from one intact class participated in this study. Four DVD video exercise sessions ranging from 1 minute 45 seconds to 2 minutes 30 seconds in length were investigated. Data were collected twice on each of the four video exercise sessions. Data collection occurred on six days over a four week period. On the first day students' were measured for weight, height, and waist circumference and learned how to properly put on the heart rate monitors. On the second day students practiced using the heart rate monitors, learned how to perform the exercise videos, and practiced the rate of perceived exertion (RPE) scale. During the final four days of data collection, students participated in two video sessions each day. A thirty minute break was given to students in between each video to allow the heart to return to a sitting heart rate level. Results revealed that the intensity of the exercise videos resulted in almost all students reaching their target heart rate zone. There was no significant relationship found between peak exercise heart rate and responses to the RPE scale, waist circumference, or BMI. The exercise video with the highest mean heart rate was "Pretend Jump Rope" (M=162.4, SD=16.45) and the lowest mean heart rate was from "Chair Aerobics" (M=142.86, SD=23.75). The exercise videos "Air Step Aerobics" (M=148.86, SD=24.76) and "Mind in Motion" (M=148.94, SD=16.20) had similar intensity levels. Students and the teacher reported positive feelings towards the exercise video program. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester, 2011. / February 16, 2011. / Physical Education, Heart Rate, Video Exercise, Classroom Exercise, Exercise Intensity, Physical Activity / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas Ratliffe, Professor Directing Thesis; Lynn Panton, Committee Member; Alysia Roehrig-Bice, Committee Member.

There was a time when the most powerful organizations were those linked to religion. Then that power shifted toward governmental institutions. Today, some of the most powerful entities are businesses (Cohen & Greenfield, 1997), but with power comes responsibility. According to Davis (1973), organizations that do not use power in ways that society considers responsible will tend to lose it. Hence, it is not uncommon for organizations to integrate social initiatives that attend to society's needs and demands into their operations. Taking on social initiatives is referred to as corporate social responsibility (CSR). The importance of CSR has been documented (e.g., Carroll, 1979; Turban & Greening, 1996). From a marketing perspective, CSR activities have been found to have a positive influence on consumers' patronage intentions. From a management perspective, CSR initiatives have been found to influence organizational attractiveness, organizational citizenship behaviors, and employees' attitudes. However, most scholarly work in the area of management has been of a conceptual nature and has not analyzed in depth the extent to which employees' perceptions of CSR initiatives influence important attitude-related outcomes such as organizational identification. Therefore, the researcher conducted a study that attempted to fill in this gap. Specifically, the researcher developed and empirically tested a model that examined the relationship between employees' perceptions of CSR initiatives, organizational identification, employees' attitudes toward CSR, and two behavioral variables. The study was composed of a pilot study and a main study. The results of the pilot study demonstrated that some changes needed to be made to the scale in order to improve its psychometric properties. The changes consisted of adding items and changing the wording of other items. All changes were made before the main study was conducted. Two samples were collected for the main study. The idea behind collecting two samples (sport and non-sport) was to test if the results varied by organizational context. The results led the researcher to conclude there were no significant differences among employees working for sport organizations and non-sport organizations. Regarding hypothesis testing, the results were mixed. Although the structural model provided an acceptable fit to the data, several of the hypotheses were not supported. The hypotheses that were supported provide evidence that employees' perceptions of CSR motivation have a positive impact on their organizational identification. Furthermore, organizational identification was found to be a positive predictor of organizational citizenship behaviors and personal social action. This study is an initial attempt to test the model proposed by the researcher. This study contributes to the advancement of the study of CSR and its impact on employees. Furthermore, because organizational studies are very limited within the field of sport management (Wolfe, Weick, Usher, Terborg, Poppo, Murrell, Dukerich, Crown Core, Dickson, & Jourdan, 2005), it also contributes to the advancement of such type of studies within the sport realm. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring 2012. / December 9, 2011. / Corporate social responsibility, Employees' attitudes, Employees' perceptions, Organizational Identification / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Gerald Ferris, Committee Member; Yu Kyoum Kim, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to assess predictors of employee counterproductive work behavior (CWB) in six Major League Baseball (MLB) organizations. The effects of two individual variables (negative affectivity and positive affectivity), situational variables (distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice), and the moderating effects of team identification on CWB were examined. Full-time employees (N=301) completed questionnaires assessing team identification, individual variables, situational variables, counterproductive behaviors, and demographic questions. The results regarding the relationships with CWB were mixed. Team identification did not play a significant role as a moderator in the analysis. Negative affectivity was found to have a positive relationship with CWB; positive affectivity was found to have a negative relationship. Individuals high in positive affectivity were less engaged in CWB, whereas individuals low in positive affectivity engaged in more CWB. Counter to expectations, distributive justice was positively associated with CWB. Although the hypotheses regarding the effects of six variables on CWB were partially supported; the study of MLB employees warrants further investigations. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport and Recreation Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer 2012. / April 12, 2012. / Baseball, CWB, Sport / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael Mondello, Professor Directing Dissertation; Pamela Perrewe, University Representative; Shelbie Witte, Committee Member; Jeffrey James, Committee Member.

A revolution started in women's athletics with the passage of Title IX of the Education Amendment Act of 1972. The Act required all educational programs and activities to be treated on an equal basis. Now women's athletic programs had to receive the same services and benefits available to men's programs. The growth in the number of opportunities, participation level, and effects has been the subject of a great deal of research and literature since 1972. But what is the story of women's intercollegiate athletics before this revolution? In order to find this story, a phenomenological in-depth study was conducted. Five women were selected by a panel of experts in the field of women's sports and were interviewed about their experiences in intercollegiate athletics, as athletes and as professional physical education teachers, coaches, and administrators. As athletes, there were few opportunities available to them. Many of them mentioned participating in sport days or play days and three of them had extensive involvement in industrial leagues outside of the school system. As physical education teachers, all of them started intramural programs which later evolved into intercollegiate competition. They transported their athletes to games in their own vehicles, the girls bought T-shirts or played in physical education tunics. The teams were under the supervision of the women's physical education department and any funding they received came from student government organizations. For all of the women, their athletes were truly students first and athletes second. Games were played on the weekend to avoid conflict with academics. The highlight for the women involved in the study was the love of the game by their athletes. The young women were willing to do anything to play, practice whenever they could get a facility, play in inadequate facilities, and furnish their own money for uniforms and travel. Their love of the game showed in the growth of women's athletics at every school at which these women were involved. These women and others like them started a growth and desire for intercollegiate competition that led to the revolution created by Title IX. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management & Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2003. / July 30, 2003. / Athletics, Women / Includes bibliographical references. / Annie Clement, Professor Directing Dissertation; Beverly Bower, Outside Committee Member; Chuck Imwold, Committee Member; Cecile Reynaud, Committee Member.

There has not been a great deal of research undertaken to explore the impact of sport sponsorship on consumer behavior despite the increased use of sport sponsorship to reach various market segments. The majority of the research has focused on issues pertaining to the firms, such as the setting of sponsorship objectives or measuring sponsorship results. Therefore, the purpose of conducting this study was three-fold. The first purpose was to examine the effects of perceived brand/sport event match-up on specific cognitive and affective consumers' responses that contribute to the development of customer-based brand equity. The second purpose was to investigate variables that influence the process of perceived brand/sport event match-up. The last purpose was to examine the unique contributions of certain cognitive and affective responses to determine whether the elements of customer-based brand equity are important in explaining purchasing intention. The results revealed that the high brand/sport event match-up and low brand/sport event match-up groups differ significantly on corporate image, brand attitude, and brand awareness when considered together in a multivariate situation. In addition, the effects of the some individual independent variables on perceived brand/sport event match-up were significant. The positive effect of students' product category involvement on perceived brand/sport event match-up was not statistically significant while the positive effect of students' sport event involvement on perceived brand/sport event match-u was significant. Also, the effect of students' product category knowledge on perceived brand/sport event match-up was not statistically significant while the positive effect of students' sport event knowledge on perceived brand/sport event match-up was significant. Finally, the result of the effects of consumer-based brand equity was significant in relation to purchasing intention. There was the positive effect of corporate image, brand attitude, and correct identification of the sponsoring brands on purchasing intention. Therefore, this study pointed out the function of consumers' sport sponsorship information structures in influential response to brands. It is critical that sport sponsorship strategy becomes a function of the overall brand strategy and that it is coordinated on a corporate level so that it may contribute to the brand's overall equity and direct/indirect sales. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2004. / July 21, 2004. / Includes bibliographical references. / E. Newton Jackson, Jr., Professor Directing Dissertation; Leisa Flynn, Outside Committee Member; Michael Mondello, Committee Member; Jerome Quarterman, Committee Member.

The Shape of the Nation Report (2010) concluded that at least 22 states allow required physical education credits to be earned through online physical education courses. Moreover, Florida Virtual School's (FLVS) Personal Fitness course is now used in over 25 states and at least14 countries. While there are incredible growth rates and projected increased enrollments, there is a healthy skepticism among the physical education profession about virtual physical education (VPE). Current literature does not shed much light into VPE, and until more is known the skeptics will continue to have reason to doubt this method of learning. If designed and implemented appropriately, VPE may serve as an alternative appropriate method of instruction. It may promote relevance and positive attitudes for students. This method could match one's learning style that prefers independent and self-paced curriculum combined with the flexibility to achieve appropriate physical education learning tasks (NAPSE, 2007). This study explored the characteristics of VPE students (n=19,994) enrolled in FLVS physical education for the school year 2008-2009. Archived student records and surveys provided for a description of characteristics, demographics, learning preferences, learning experiences, and achievement levels of bo 05 for each test. Results for this study provided initial findings with regard to the students of VPE at FLVS and revealed significant differences between completers and noncompleters. This research continued to build the groundwork for this understudied area. Areas of interest were illuminated and directions for future studies are given for empirical design-based research. Moreover, administrators and practitioners of VPE will be more equipped with data driven information for guidance in programmatic decisions. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2010. / June 25, 2010. / Includes bibliographical references. / Susan Lynn, Professor Directing Dissertation; Elizabeth Jakubowski, University Representative; Thomas Ratliffe, Committee Member; Stacey Rutledge, Committee Member.

Consumer behavior researchers have found that satisfaction is a key predictor of repeat purchase, positive word-of-mouth, loyalty, and ultimately profitability of a firm. While researchers have worked to better understand the relationship between consumer retention variables and satisfaction, there are few studies examining the determinants and consequences of consumer satisfaction within the spectator sport context. Traditional approaches to consumer satisfaction research have emphasized the theory of expectancy disconfirmation for explaining consumer satisfaction. This approach, however, is not without limitations. Therefore, counterfactual thinking is proposed as an alternative comparison standard of sport consumer satisfaction, which is a useful framework to explain how satisfaction is formed based on a "what might have been" heuristic. In addition to counterfactual thinking, it is also important to better understand the effect of emotion on counterfactual thinking. A substantial body of satisfaction research focuses on the role of emotion in predicting consumer satisfaction. Little is known, however, about whether happiness and sadness, two opposite-valence emotions, can be experienced simultaneously, and whether mixed emotions result in downward or upward counterfactual thinking. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether sport consumers can experience mixed emotions and to test the reaction of a sport consumer contemplating different counterfactual alternatives influenced by emotions. This study also includes an examination of whether consideration of an upward counterfactual comparison reduces sport consumer satisfaction, and whether consideration of a downward counterfactual comparison enhances sport consumer satisfaction. Finally, I sought to provide insight into the effect of counterfactual direction on sport consumer behavioral intentions. The results of Study 1 provide information from which to assess H1a through H1d. The highest level of positive emotion was reported from viewing a straight win game, whereas the highest level of negative emotion was reported from those viewing a straight loss. Importantly, sport consumers could experience positive and negative emotions concurrently while watching a conflicting game outcome such as disappointing win and relieving loss. Regarding the relationship between emotions and counterfactual directions (H2a through H3b), the results of Study 2 provide evidence that positive emotion is a strong antecedent to downward counterfactual thinking, and negative emotion is a significant predictor of upward counterfactual thinking. However, no significant interaction effect of mixed emotions and dialectical thinking in predicting counterfactual directions was found. To test the direct impacts of counterfactual directions on sport consumer satisfaction and behavioral intentions (H4a through H6), Study 3 was conducted. The results of Study 3 provide evidence that sport consumers who generated downward counterfactual thinking had a significantly higher level of satisfaction than those who generated upward counterfactual thinking. We may infer from these results that sport consumers who engaged in "what might have been worse" mental simulation of alternative possible outcomes were satisfied to a greater extent with team performance than those who engaged in "what might have been better" mental simulation. Another finding from Study 3 was that downward counterfactual thinking was a significant predictor of behavioral intentions. Finally, satisfaction was a strong antecedent of behavioral intentions, account for approximately 29% of the variance. This study is a first attempt to empirically test and conceptualize counterfactual thinking as an alternative comparison standard in sport consumer satisfaction formation. The study contributes to the literature on sport consumer satisfaction by examining how sport consumers use a "what might have been" heuristic in the formation of satisfaction. From a broader perspective, this study adds to a growing interest in experiences of emotional ambivalence in the spectator sports setting and what impact such experience might have on counterfactual thinking. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 11, 2013. / Consumer behavior, Counterfactual thinking, Mixed emotion, Satisfaction / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Pamela L. Perrewe, University Representative; Yu Kyoum Kim, Committee Member; Alysia D. Roehrig, Committee Member.

Water is a natural resource with which the Global North is familiar with, but unfamiliar - conscious of its importance, but unconscious of its complexity. People with access to clean water know that they receive water in their hands or glass when they turn on the faucet, but how it reaches that point is really unimportant over the course of their day. Yet, the battle for access to and control of water has been burgeoning for centuries: the Nile River Wars have raged on for centuries and continue today (Waterbury, 1979); access to clean drinking water was determined by social class in the middle ages resulting in impressive aqueduct systems and social division (Magnusson, 2001); cholera spread throughout India during the colonization period as the caste system was introduced and clean water was a privilege strictly for the colonizers and elite (Arnold, 1986); conservation of water through times of drought plagued the Southwestern United States through the early to middle twentieth centuries leading to large dam projects and governmental subsidies for farmers (Glennon, 2009); and, water is currently a resource interwoven within a larger discussion involving environmental marketization (Bakker, 2007). There has been a plethora of solutions proposed, greed exposed, and bodies decomposed, but the problem exists as much now as ever. The era we enter into now is one of new media and technology that helps to expose individuals to the human body in need. This media exposure has led to the widespread adoption of the phrase "water crisis" and has involved a growth in the number of non-profits involved with water problems. First entering the public lexicon in 1991, "'crisis' over environmental issues have been presented by well-intentioned activists and organisations promoting the changes needed to bring about sustainable development" (Newson, 2009, p. 17). This crisis can be in large part accredited to failed government initiatives and privatization efforts that continue to create problems (Bakker, 2010). The non-profit era born from a turn in economic policies away from social welfare programming (King, 2000; Specht & Courtney, 1994; Trattner, 1999), has seemingly come to the rescue of the failures between the state and the private entity. This turn toward an era dominated by non-profits and a discourse of the good, philanthropic American citizen has witnessed the rise of the social marketing conglomerate. These social marketing groups are comprised of non-profit organizations, multinational corporations, local communities, and governments all working towards behavioral changes (Kotler & Lee, 2009) on the part of the Global North consumer of their message or the Global South receiver of their aid. One avenue the social marketing groups have chosen to utilize is sport. It is on this idea of sport and the human body as a site for the development and reproduction of historical struggles for life, power, and control that this project focuses. To this end, I followed the water as it flows quite literally as a resource, to a commodity, to money, to commodity, and back again through multi-method qualitative inquiry. This interpretive ethnography (Denzin, 1997) consisted of three qualitative methods of inquiry. The first is a descriptive content analysis of the discourse of water and the implementation of programs providing clean drinking water to those in the Global South. The second type of analysis is semi-structured and reflexive interviews (Denzin, 2001) with participants in events raising money for water and members of social marketing groups. The final part of the analysis is a critical ethnography of water charities in the Global North. Through this method, I understood who gets to speak for whom and what type of bodies matter in the search for the answer to the world's water crisis. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2014. / March 27, 2014. / Crisis, Organizational Ethnography, Political Economy, Social Marketing, Sport for Development, Water Charity / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael D. Giardina, Professor Directing Dissertation; Jennifer M. Proffitt, University Representative; Joshua I. Newman, Committee Member; Jeffrey D. James, Committee Member.