There are significant differences between conifers and herbaceous species in their stomatal sensitivity to exogenously applied ABA. Experiments on white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv Katepwa) seedlings, whose roots were sealed in an aeroponic misting chamber, confirmed that 200-fold higher concentrations (2 x 10⁻³ M) of exogenously applied (±)ABA were required to close stomata in spruce than in wheat (10⁻5 M). I tested the hypothesis that this difference in response between species was because: (i) stomata are inherently more sensitive to ABA in wheat than in spruce; (ii) in wheat, ABA is taken up more efficiently by roots and more ABA is subsequently delivered to the shoots and (iii) a combination of (i) and (ii). Tritiated ABA was applied to plants over approximately 10 hours and their water uptake (transpiration rate, E) measured continuously. ABA uptake efficiency (UE) was calculated as the ratio of the scintillation count of root and shoot tissue extract to the product of the activity of the misting solution and total water uptake. Transport efficiency (TE) was calculated as the ratio of the shoot to the total tissue scintillation count. UE was almost twice as high in spruce (31.0 %) as in wheat (18.6 %). However, in spruce, virtually all of the ABA taken up remained in the roots (94.5 %). In contrast, in wheat, a much higher proportion of ABA taken up by the plant was delivered to the shoots (48.8 %). Thus TE was almost 9 times higher in wheat than spruce. Treatments such as increasing root temperature or the use of dimethyl sulphoxide as an organic solvent,brought about dramatic increases in UE in both species (in spruce, UE, in some cases, was almost 80%). However, in spruce this did not result in increased delivery of ABA to the shoots and TE declined. When the roots were excised from spruce seedlings, there was a 55-fold increase in the amount of ABA delivered to the shoots and a concomitant 20-fold increase in stomatal sensitivity to the application of ABA. Immunofluorescence labeling technique, used to localize ABA, showed that the cortical cells around the endodermis were the main site of exogenous ABA accumulation in sprace roots. In contrast, in wheat, the major portion o f the exogenous ABA was found inside the vascular tissue in the roots. I conclude that in spruce, the roots provide a major barrier to the transport of ABA to the shoots. However, differences in TE between wheat and spruce, while very large, do not fully account for differences in their stomatal response to exogenously applied ABA. Thus it is likely that wheat stomata are inherently mere sensitive to ABA than those of spruce. Experiments were also conducted on white spruce and wheat seedlings, to determine the uptake and transport from roots to shoots of (+)- and (—)-ABA enantiomers and their respective methyl ester derivatives. I tested the hypothesis that the higher biological activity, determined as their ability to affect gas exchange, of ABA enantiomers or specifically tailored analogues would be related to their being more efficiently incorporated into roots and subsequently transported to shoots. Tritiated ABA and MeABA enantiomers were applied, using an aeroponic root misting system, for 10 hours and seedling transpiration and photosynthesis rates monitored. Uptake efficiency (UE) and Transport efficiency (TE) were calculated as described earlier. In both species, (+)-ABA was more biologically active than (—)-ABA. However, differences in TE between the ABA enantiomers were significant only in wheat with the natural enantiomer having twice as high a TE as (-)-ABA. In spruce, the UE of the methyl ester enantiomers (~87 %) was almost twice as high as that of the respective ABA enantiomers. However, virtually all of the MeABA taken up remained in the roots with less than 2 % reaching the shoots. Thus, despite its higher transport across root membranes, MeABA, at all concentrations tested, had a lower biological activity than ABA and there was no correspondence between root uptake and bioactivity. Adding an isopropyl ester to the C-1 carbon of ABA brought about an increased bioactivity only in spruce where (±)- iPrABA induced stomatal closure at a 10-fold lower concentration (10⁻⁴ M), than (±)- ABA. I conclude that a much larger proportion of exogenously applied ABA is sequestered in spruce roots than in wheat. Thus it is likely that, in the former species, any increased biological activity of ABA analogues depends on how effectively they are transported from the roots to receptor sites in the shoots. / Graduate

The high canopy (33m-65m) from an ancient Sitka spruce forest in the Carmanah Valley on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, was investigated to examine the structure and diversity of the arthropod fauna. A fixed-access canopy system was developed to facilitate arthropod sampling in this habitat. Within the canopies of 5 ancient Sitka spruce trees, arthropods associated with branches were collected by cutting 270 branches over 6 time intervals. Branches were enclosed in plastic bags and contents were examined in the laboratory where 1,268 individuals were enumerated and assigned to feeding guilds. Arthropods associated with the branches in the canopy were dominated by individuals in the phytophagous, predator and parasitoid guilds. Individual trees and seasonality both contributed significantly to the proportional structuring of the phytophagous and predator guilds. Vertical partitioning was not a significant factor in guild proportionality. Interaction effects were only significant for the phytophagous guild. The documentation of high predator loading in a structurally and functionally diverse ecosystem such as ancient forest canopies is in concert with previous studies and supports observations on reduced herbivory in mature, structurally complex forests. I suggest that canopy habitats provide a template important for examining questions about the maintenance of biodiversity in ancient forests. Further understanding of the factors involved may provide us with predictive information that could be used to examine patterns in community structure and provide answers to process-driven biodiversity and conservation questions. I collected samples bi-weekly throughout the growing season, from replicated moss/soil samples and malaise traps from 5 study sites associated with the ancient Sitka spruce forests: 2 ancient forest Sitka spruce canopies, ancient forest interior, transition zone (edge between ancient forest and clear-cut), and clear-cut (6 years old). I recorded 71 species of Oribatida ( 2,117 specimens), representing 51 genera and 34 families. Taxonomic distincness was most pronounced in the canopy moss/soil mats where oribatid mites are members of a distinct arboreal community that is not just a random sub-set of the ground fauna. Comparisons between the high-canopy and three ground sites indicated that overall, species percent similarity was low. Thirty and 28 species of oribatids were recorded from the 2 canopy sites, of which 12 species are canopy specific. Species exhibiting strict arboreal specificity are all in the Brachyphlina, from the families Thyrisomidae, Damaeidae, Eremaeidae, Oripodidae, Gymnodamaeidae,Oppiidae,Peloppiidae, Galumnatidae, and Cymbaeremaeidae. I consider oribatids of the canopy to be inhabitants of islands, in the sense that they are isolated from their ground coimterparts and have a distinct fauna that is characterized by two ecological groups of species; wandering species with dispersal capabilities and arboreal species with low dispersal capabilities. I conclude that oribatid mites can be used as a surrogate for other ancient forest soil microarthropods, and predict that arboreal specificity will also be pronounced in these taxa. I explored dispersal capabilities further, where 36 species of Oribatida (2596 specimens), representing 29 genera and 21 families were recorded from replicated malaise traps positioned in the canopy and on the forest floor. Colonization of malaise traps was 100% in the canopy, 91% in the forest floor and 47% in the clear-cut.Nine of these species were not recorded using high gradient extractions of moss/sod from the canopy or forest floor or clear-cut. Thirty of these species are Brachypyiina, with the families Eremaeidae, Peloppiidae and Ceratozetidae represented by three or more species. Colonizing specimens were predominantly adult, and represent sexually vreproducing taxa; immatures comprised only 0.9% to 4.2% of specimens. Ceratoppia spp., Eporibatula sp.1, Dorycranosus sp.l, Sphaerozetes sp. 1 and Oribatella sp. 1 had a ftequency > 50% in the forest floor malaise traps, and Eporibatula sp. I, Sphaerozetes sp. 1 and Dendrozetes sp. 1 had a frequency > 50% in canopy malaise traps. Phoresy as a source of the oribatid fauna in the malaise traps is unlikely as only Paraleius sp. 1 of the species represented is modified for this mode of dispersal. The number of species recorded from malaise traps, and the frequency, relative abundance and seasonality of many of them support the hypothesis that active aerial dispersal by random movement is an important mode of colonization of canopy habitats. I examined features related to the Centinelan extinction concept and asked whether or not this is applicable to northern temperate ancient forest arthropods. Habitat loss in these forest systems on Vancouver Island is well documented and at present, of 89 ancient forest watersheds over 5000 ha in size, only 6 remain undisturbed by logging. Examination of identified arthropod species ( 1,311 to date), indicates that the structurally complex habitat acts as a reservoir for biological diversity. Of particular importance to the maintenance of arthropod biodiversity is the documentation of those species that are new to science or species that are restricted to habitats only found in ancient forests. The new species (approx. 120) so far recorded represent a contribution towards categorizing the endemic arthropod fauna of this ancient forest. I expect that, with continued taxonomic resolution, this list of undescribed species will be significantly increased. Specific examples include Hypogastrura arborea Fjellberg, Anacliliea vallis Coher and A winchesteri Coher, Cinara n. sp. Voegtlin, and Miniliomosina n. sp. Marshall. This type of habitat specificity is well documented for the oribatid mites and for the staphylinid beetles where I have documented 8 new species of Omaliinae which appear to rely on ancient forests as a source area to maintain reproductively viable subpopulations. Without proper documentation, I suggest that the arthropod fauna of ancient forests contain species that are candidates for the Centinelan extinction concept — extinction of species unknown before their demise and hence unrecorded. In conclusion, my studies present evidence from several arthropod groups to indicate that the ancient forests of the Carmanah Valley act as a source habitat for several species, many of which are currently undescribed. Habitat specificity is most pronounced in the canopy where soil micro-arthropods such as the oribatid mites exhibit arboreal specificity. The importance of describing these species assemblages coupled with the inclusion of dynamic processes such as dispersal into the framework of how we think about arthropods in ancient forests is a challenge that lies ahead for the entomological research community. Recognizing these components should assist efforts in addressing the conservation of biodiversity in these ancient forests. / Graduate

Holocellulose has been prepared, from Sitka spruce heartwood. This material has been subjected to acid hydrolysis for increasing periods of time. The residues have been examined for residual pentosan and alpha-cellulose. The hydrolyzates have been examined for free sugars by means of paper partition chromatography. Glucose, galactose, mannose, arabinose and xylose have been identified and the presence of methoxyuronic acid inferred. A procedure has been devised for the quantitative determination of these sugars after their separation on paper chromatograms. / Science, Faculty of / Chemistry, Department of / Graduate

Sitka Spruce holocellulose has been prepared by the chlorite procedure as modified by Wise and associates. This material has been subjected to successive methylations. The methoxyl content and yield of the solid residue were determined after each methylation and the methoxyl contents have been compared with corresponding values obtained when extractive-free wood was treated in the same manner. The methoxyl contents and yields of material present in the liquors from the first methylation have also been determined. / Science, Faculty of / Chemistry, Department of / Graduate

The principal objective of the study is the determination of geographic variation in white spruce in British Columbia. Since variation within this species in British Columbia is greatly influenced by hybridization with other spruce species, an attempt is made to demarcate zones of hybridization, and evaluate its effect on variation in white spruce. In a preliminary chapter the literature pertaining to principles and concepts of taxonomic and genecological investigation is critically examined in relation to infraspecific variation in tree species. The conclusions of this chapter constitute the assumptions of the investigation. A second chapter summaries the literature pertaining to the phylogeny and distribution of the spruce species of British Columbia, Photoperiodicity in forest trees is discussed in the third chapter. Following the chapters referred to above the study is divided into two parts, A and B. Part A is a study of the growth behaviour of 150 populations of spruce grown in a relatively uniform environment during a period of two years. The seed, which was collected throughout the spruce complex of British Columbia, was sown at the British Columbia Forest Service research nursery on Vancouver Island in the spring of 1965. Detailed measurements were made during the growing seasons of 1965 and 1966. In the laboratory seed samples of the same populations were X-rayed to determine embryo development and subsequently germinated at 25°C. Further seed samples were germinated at 15, 20, and 30°C. Part B is a study of geographic variation in mature populations of white spruce, and refers principally to a biometrical investigation of variation in cone scale morphology which was carried out on a mass collection of spruce cones collected in 157 areas throughout the range of spruce in British Columbia during the summers of 1963 and 1964. On the basis of the results obtained in parts A and B the following general conclusions are made: (i) In regard to the white-Engelmann spruce complex in British Columbia the environmental pressures which result in microevolution, i.e. infraspecific variation, differ only in degree rather than in kind from the environmental pressures which result in macroevolution, i.e. speciation. (ii) The faculty for normal development and survival of white spruce, and its related forms, is conditioned by the cessation of growth and initiation of dormancy. (iii) Time of initiation of dormancy in a population in any one region where the species occurs naturally is conditioned by its genetic constitution. (iv) The genetic constitution of a natural population is predominantly determined by the photothermal regime prevailing in that region. (v) In so far as there is a difference in the photothermal regime between any two regions the genetic constitution of the spruce populations occupying those regions will differ. (vi) One of the most important external manifestations of this difference is the time of cessation of growth and initiation of domancy. On the basis of these general conclusions, recommendations are made in regard to the silviculture of white spruce and its related forms in British Columbia, and also in regard to the field testing of the spruce populations referred to in part A of this study. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

During the 1970 fall, the I.U.F.R.O. Section 22 "Working group on procurement of seed for provenance research" organized an expedition to collect Sitka spruce cones from British Columbia and Alaska. The locations of the 39 provenances range from 48.38 ° to 58.37° latitude N and from 121.93° to 134.58° longitude W. The elevation varies from 0 to 2, 200 feet above sea level. In most cases, the collections were made from 15 trees in each location. The single tree progeny collection of 557 trees representing 39 locations constitute the material of this thesis. In a first part, seed and cone morphology were studied on a single tree basis. Ten cones per progeny were randomly selected and the length of each cone measured to the nearest mm. Five randomly selected seeds from each tree were mounted on a special sheet, and seed length, seed width, wing length and wing width were measured to the nearest 0. 01 mm. Nested analyses of variance and DUNCAN's multiple range tests for all the characteristics studied have been performed using five subregions. No definite classification of the provenances was possibly using univariate anova procedures. A simple correlation matrix has been calculated between all the traits studied and longitude, latitude and altitude of the place of origin of the provenances, using the provenance means. Multiple regression analyses have been used for investigating this correlation matrix. The percentage of variation accounted for by the geographical co-ordinates varies between 10. 2% and 43. 6%. Using the seed and cone traits studied, a comparison of several multivariate statistical analyses which could be used for classification purposes has been attempted. The so-called canonical analysis, discriminant function analysis and principal component analysis have been compared and applied for classifying the provenances. The sub-regions already used were analyzed separately. Dendrograms were also constructed and analyzed. Advantages and disadvantages of each multivariate method have been discussed. It was found that the discriminant function analysis, its associated generalized distances of MAHALANOBIS and dendrograms provided the most rational classification of the provenances. In a second part, the genetic variability of 545 Sitka spruce single tree progenie s was studied in a nursery test during 1 971 andl972. A total of 545 single tree progenies grouped into 38 provenances was sown in April, 1971, using a randomized complete block design with four replications and 24 seedlings per replication or 96 seedlings per progeny. The seeds were placed in the cavities of styro-blocks using the method developed by the Pacific Forest Research Centre in co-operation with the B. C. Forest Service and they have been treated by the most recent nursery methods, in the new B. C. F. S. nursery at Surrey (B.C.). Germination rate, bud set, length of the epicotyl and survival after the first growing season were assessed in 1971. The "seedlings were translpnated in plain soil seedbeds in May, 1972, to a distance of 6" to 6", each progeny being kept separate while respecting the same statistical design as in 1971. Bud burst, bud set, colour of the needles and total height after the second growing season, were assessed in 1972. There was a clinal variation in bud burst, bud set, colour of the needles and epicotyl length. Bud burst was negatively correlated with longitude (r = -0. 50) and positively correlated with altitude (r = 0.42). Bud set appeared under strict genetic control as indicated by the second estimation of this trait, at the end of the second growing season (with latitude: r = 0. 88). Latitude and altitude of the seed sources explained 65% of the total variation in epicotyl length. Total height after the second growing season showed the same relationships as epicotyl length. General equations for components of variance for unbalanced data were originally calculated for a nested-crossed model. Components of variance and their standard error were calculated for epicotyl length and total height after the second growing season. Depending on the sub-regions, the genetic variance among provenances is generally larger than the tree to tree genetic variation. The narrow sense heritability, on an individual basis, and its standard error, for total height after the second growing season, were estimatedon a subregion basis. Heritability was found generally to be close to 0. 10, indicating low general combining ability. The relationships between the seed, cone and seedling traits measured were studied. Multiple regression analysis showed that a higher proportion of the variation of the seedling traits was accounted for by the geographical coordinates of the provenances than by the cone and seed traits studied. Variation in foliar macro- and micro- nutrients of 10 Sitka spruce provenances was studied, but no geographical pattern of variation detected in K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, P, and N needle contents. Only K showed some provenance to provenance variation. Possible physiological explanations for this absence of variation are discussed. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

Thesis (M.S.) in Forestry--University of Maine, 2004. / Includes vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 83-88).

A study was made of two glucomannans, one isolated by alkaline borate extraction of Sitka spruce wood and the second from black spruce. These were methylated by the Hakomori procedure employing sodium hydride in dimethyl sulfoxide. Considerable experimentation was done to determine the best conditions for methylation and to demonstrate the utility and practicability of analysis by these methods. Some inferences regarding the structure of the glucomannans are drawn from the methylation data. / Science, Faculty of / Chemistry, Department of / Graduate

Call number: LD2668 .T4 1984 J38 / Master of Science

In response to concern over the failure and poor growth of many interior and white spruce plantations in British Columbia the effect of storage duration and soil temperature on the photosynthetic ability of white spruce seedlings was explored. Seedlings of Picea glauca were dark freezer stored (-5°C) from 9.6 to 30.6 weeks, thawed and grown for 28 days in a growth chamber at three different soil temperatures (3,7,11°C). During this period gas exchange variables and chlorophyll fluorescence kinetics were followed. Seedlings stored for periods of 22 weeks or longer had significantly lower rates of photosynthesis dependent on the outplanting soil temperature. Stomatal conductance was initially low upon outplanting and showed a recovery period of 4-7 days duration. The level of stomatal conductance increased in seedlings after they were stored for 26.1 weeks or longer. Chlorophyll fluorescence measurements of seedlings stored from 22 to 30.6 weeks showed a recovery period in photosynthetic efficiency (Fy/Fp) related to changes in photosynthesis. A decrease in seedling Fy/Fp with increasing periods of storage was noted at day 5 after outplanting. A disproportionate increase in new root growth with the increasing soil temperatures, measured after the 28 day growth period, suggested a soil temperature threshold for root growth exists between the 7°C and ll°C. In contrast, the stomatal conductance and photosynthesis results suggest the seedling shoots were not directly affected by the cold soil temperatures. In general, the results suggest Picea glauca seedlings stored longer than 22 weeks in freezer conditions have reduced photosynthetic ability, root growth and overall vigor. Fluorescence and bud break data suggest the reduction was possibly due to freezing damage sustained in storage affecting photosynthetic electron transport through photoinhibition upon returning seedlings to the light. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate