Rainfed areas in the Dry-Zone of Sri Lanka are characteristic of extensive marginal agro-ecosystems known as the semi-arid tropics (SAT) populated by poor farming communities. In the Dry-Zone and elsewhere, the traditional response to seasonal water scarcity was to construct rainfall-harvesting devices known as ‘tanks’; created by building earthen dykes across ephemeral streams in undulating terrain. Most are held in common ownership by adjacent communities, who use them for multiple functions including irrigation, bathing and fishing. Storage efficiency is enhanced by arranging tanks in cascading sequence within watersheds so that drainage waters can be re-used. The aim of this study was to evolve improved collective strategies for the management of seasonal water bodies (focussing on aquatic production) in order to reduce the vulnerability of the poorest groups. Understanding of these complex systems requires a holistic approach which integrates hydrological, biological and socio-economic factors on a suitable (watershed) scale. Work commenced with a comprehensive situation analysis, culminating with the formulation of a participatory research agenda for action research based on low-input stocking enhancements. Village livelihoods have traditionally revolved around paddy cultivation as the primary tank function; however, in recent times, water-use strategies have responded to a range of demographic, economic and environmental pressures with implications for the sustainable management of natural resources, especially living aquatic organisms. Natural fish production in the most seasonal tanks relies on intermittent spill-events which link successive tanks; these provide migration routes which permit recruitment of stocks from lower perennial tanks. Rehabilitation initiatives that increase the storage / irrigation capacity of tanks or poorly designed surplus weirs that impede migration have negative impacts on fisheries, though they are rarely considered by planners. The fundamental concept of the purana complex (PC) as the smallest logical sub-component of the watershed for intervention is introduced. Within PC boundaries discrete community groups bound by ties of kinship and caste, control access to private and commonly held natural resources. PCs in the uppermost reaches of watersheds are distinguishable by the highly seasonal nature of their tanks and poor physical infrastructure relative to lower watershed communities. Such areas are also often buffer zones between as yet uninhabited hinterlands and settled areas where cultivation potentials are further restricted due to wild animal incursions. Consequently, these groups exhibit the greatest dependence on exploitation of the natural resource base. This often includes less seasonal tanks in lower PCs where fisheries are of less significance to local livelihoods. Such low-level ‘poaching’ is generally well tolerated, but potential for conflict exists where development efforts restrict hitherto free access to these resources. These findings were the basis for two phases of action research which involved the stocking of ten tanks belonging to seven communities in North West Province (2000-2001). Phase 1 trials encompassed a range of social and physical and settings from lower to upper watershed. Results indicated that the use of costly hatchery-produced seed was unlikely to be sustainable given (1) a background of highly erratic natural production (2) uncertain returns to individual effort and (3) a low priority accorded to fish production from village tanks given the availability of low-cost commercial production from perennial reservoirs. The second phase was restricted to low-caste communities in upper watershed areas and relied entirely on wild-fish stocks captured from perennial reservoirs lower in the watershed. Also emphasis was on intermittent ‘staggered’ harvesting using hook and line gears rather than the single intensive ‘collective harvests’ adopted in phase 1 trials. High yield potentials were demonstrated in the smallest tanks (<4ha) which were devoid of fish stocks during two pervious drought years. Results also indicate that sustainable adoption will be likely only where there is strong social cohesion and representative village leadership. An adaptive learning process which can demonstrate the net benefits of staggered harvesting in seasonal tanks is described. These stocking strategies combined with tank rehabilitation sympathetic to preservation of upstream hydrological linkages, are highly complementary enhancement steps. Results clearly show that together they have potential to maintain the wider aquatic ecosystem on which the poorest groups depend.

Thesis (PhD)--Macquarie University, Graduate School of Management, 2004. / Bibliography: p. 210-272. / "December 2003". / Overview -- Literature review of intellectual capital reporting with a human capital focus -- Forces shaping intellectual capital reporting in Sri Lanka -- Reseach method -- Political economy of accounting reporting theory -- Hypothesis development and data interpretation -- Results of hypothesis testing --Interpretation of results -- Conclusions. / This study examines and explains the intellectual capital reporting (ICR) practices, with a human capital (HumC) focus, of firms located in a developing nation, Sri Lanka. The study ascertained the following: first, to what extent the industry groups, based on the number of shareholders, differ in their ICR practices; and second, to what extent firms in Sri Lanka differfrom counterparts in other nations in their ICR practices. -- The literature reviewed highlighted the voluntary nature and unregulated nvironment of ICR. It also underlined the inability of traditional accounting to recognise IC within its financial statements. This has lead to a plethora of non-uniform definitions of intellectual capital (IC) and ICR, and a wide range of theoretical frameworks available for IC. -- This thesis examined the top 30 firms by market capitalisation listed on the Colombo stock exchange in both 1998/1999 and 1999/2000. It reviewed their annual reports using content analysis to analyse the type and amount ofIC reported, and carried out 11 case study interviews with directors and senior executives to analyse the type and amount of IC managed within the firms. Using this data, this study tested the political economy of accounting (PEA) theory. The study collapsed the firms into four industry groups based on the number of areholders; this was done on the basis that the number of shareholders of a firm influences their ICR practice. -- The results indicate that, overall, there were distinct differences in ICR practice between industry groups. The industry groups were found to report similarly in relation to IC category. However, in relation to IC elements the industry groups were found to report differently, with some industry groups over reporting on certain elements which were not well managed and vice versa. The differences in ICR practices indicate that industry groups use ICR to mediate the agenda of debate between them and their economic, social and political constituents to maximise their capital reproduction. The study also indicates that differences exist in ICR practices between firms located in Sri Lanka and firms in other nations in relation to both IC categories and IC elements. These differences are attributed to the unique economic, social and political context of each country. / Mode of access: World Wide Web. / xvii, 383 p., ill

There has been a growing understanding in recent years of the links between conflict emergence and horizontal inequalities and increased focus on the role which development policies can play in both ameliorating and exacerbating the root causes of violent conflict. This study tests the empirical relationship between horizontal inequalities and conflict causation using the Sri Lankan ethnic conflict as a case study. The analysis shows robust support for the empirical relationship between horizontal inequality (which encompasses political, economic, social and cultural dimensions) and the emergence of violent conflict in Sri Lanka. In this context of inequality, Tamil leaders, who faced political exclusion, and their followers, who themselves experienced inequitable access to employment, education opportunities, assets, were inspired to mobilise and engage in armed violence. Thus, the ethnic conflict stemmed from the disillusionment, frustration and increasing radicalisation of Tamils in their attitude towards the Sri Lankan state, rejecting what they perceived as exclusionary policies. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) emerged as a key protagonist in the conflict, with an expressed view to establish a Tamil homeland in Sri Lanka. While most post war development policies are strongly aligned to government objectives, there are very little steps taken towards the design and adoption of policies to ameliorate horizontal inequalities. Instead, the government has identified security issues and economic growth as the cornerstone in the post war development process, and they are given greater emphasis in policies compared to underlying causes of violent conflict: inequalities in access to political power, economic resources and/or cultural status. Most Sri Lankan state actors are either not mandated to address equality issues or prefer conflict sensitive approaches to post war development. In general, there is a weak approach to conflict sensitivity in early post war development and reconstruction strategies (from 2009 to 2013). Likewise, there is relatively little attention paid to other conflict sensitive causes and dynamics such as the nature of the political system ii and problems of human rights. The failure to address fundamental issues relating to minority Tamil grievances has the potential to re-ignite the conflict. / Development Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Development Studies)

published_or_final_version / Buddhist Studies / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

Entrepreneurial Processes in an Apparently Uniform Context: A Study of Rural Farmers in Sri Lanka The primary focus of this research is the role of entrepreneurship in the economic success of rural farmers in Sri Lanka. The vilage in which this research takes place was created (administratively) from a cleared jungle, and populated in 1984 by similarly-endowed individuals not generally known to each other, thus controlling a significant number of success-influencing socio-economic variables (arising from past generations). This study, therefore, represents a &quot;unique natural experiment&quot; as it focuses on the &quot;entrepreneurial process&quot; and demonstrates how differentiation arises. A Multiple Embedded Case-Study strategy is adopted: the selected vilage provides the socio-economic and physical boundaries, and the farmers and their income generating processes are sub-cases. Successful inhabitants are identified through the folk definition of economic success: in terms of both social and economic values. Qualitative field methods are supplemented by quantifiable evidence. Research questions are answered by contrasting the socio-economic value-extraction processes of the successful farmers with the routine paddy-based socio-economic activities of the unsuccessful farmers. The environment in which inhabitants operate is constrained by limited resources and various other biophysical and socio-economic factors. The pressure exerted by these environmental constraints restricts the farmers' choices of action and forces the economically-unsuccessful farmers to form a cycle of routine socio-economic activities. This routinely 'vicious cycle' is production-oriented paddy-farming and culminates in consumption activities. The eventual result is often crop-failure and consequently economic failure brought about by ineffcient and ineffective resource use. This pattern shows a significant degree of uniformity. In contrast a variety of opportunities are perceived and capitalized on by entrepreneurs. The task of the entrepreneur, within the same environment, is to extract value by spotting these opportunities and match them with available or mobilised resources, resulting in capital-accumulation and wealth-creation. The findings illustrate how entrepreneurial and managerial value extraction strategies, in a limited resource context, complement each other and demonstrate that the managerial function is an integral component of entrepreneurship. By distinguishing amongst the different tasks of the entrepreneurial and managerial functions, the findings also confirm that these two functions are interdependent elements in influencing economic success. The thesis findings also indicate that certain entrepreneurship and strategic management principles, which have been proven applicable for the affuent Western world, are also relevant to small-scale rural farmers in the third world context who might be expected to struggle in abject poverty in order to scrape an existence. The findings also contribute a new dimension to the entrepreneurship literature, by explaining how &quot;pluriactivity&quot; is being adopted as an entrepreneurial value-extraction strategy, demonstrating how the terms &quot;pluriactivity&quot; and &quot;diversification&quot; can be utilised in relation not only to entrepreneurship and management but also to the economic growth of farmers.

There has been a growing understanding in recent years of the links between conflict emergence and horizontal inequalities and increased focus on the role which development policies can play in both ameliorating and exacerbating the root causes of violent conflict. This study tests the empirical relationship between horizontal inequalities and conflict causation using the Sri Lankan ethnic conflict as a case study. The analysis shows robust support for the empirical relationship between horizontal inequality (which encompasses political, economic, social and cultural dimensions) and the emergence of violent conflict in Sri Lanka. In this context of inequality, Tamil leaders, who faced political exclusion, and their followers, who themselves experienced inequitable access to employment, education opportunities, assets, were inspired to mobilise and engage in armed violence. Thus, the ethnic conflict stemmed from the disillusionment, frustration and increasing radicalisation of Tamils in their attitude towards the Sri Lankan state, rejecting what they perceived as exclusionary policies. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) emerged as a key protagonist in the conflict, with an expressed view to establish a Tamil homeland in Sri Lanka. While most post war development policies are strongly aligned to government objectives, there are very little steps taken towards the design and adoption of policies to ameliorate horizontal inequalities. Instead, the government has identified security issues and economic growth as the cornerstone in the post war development process, and they are given greater emphasis in policies compared to underlying causes of violent conflict: inequalities in access to political power, economic resources and/or cultural status. Most Sri Lankan state actors are either not mandated to address equality issues or prefer conflict sensitive approaches to post war development. In general, there is a weak approach to conflict sensitivity in early post war development and reconstruction strategies (from 2009 to 2013). Likewise, there is relatively little attention paid to other conflict sensitive causes and dynamics such as the nature of the political system ii and problems of human rights. The failure to address fundamental issues relating to minority Tamil grievances has the potential to re-ignite the conflict. / Development Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Development Studies)

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

Influenza A virus infections in pigs is a disease of concern to the swine industry and to the ecology and epidemiology of influenza viruses in humans. Pigs have been proposed as a “mixing vessel” for generation of pandemics via reassortment between avian and mammalian viruses. The H1N1pdm 2009 virus probably emerged from swine into humans though reassortment between the recent North American triple reassortant H1N2 swine viruses and Eurasian avian-like swine viruses. Swine influenza viruses of H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2 subtypes have been regularly detected in pigs in most parts of the world. Nevertheless, ecological and virological data on swine influenza is not available in Sri Lanka, and indeed, little documented data is available in the South Asian continent. The swine population in Sri Lanka is about 80,000, and live pigs are not regularly imported to the country. Swine husbandry is largely confined to four neighboring administrative districts in the country. Systematic virological and serological surveillance carried in swine abattoirs in Sri Lanka during 2009-2013 detected H1N1pdm 2009 like virus in local herds. Infection in pigs followed each of the H1N1pdm 2009 outbreaks in humans; October 2009 – January 2010, October 2010 – February 2011 and November 2012 – March 2013, respectively. Genetic, phylogenetic, and epidemiologic analysis of the human, and swine influenza viruses indicated spillover events of H1N1pdm 2009 from humans into pigs, with self-limited transmission and extinction within pig herds. The data also indicated that although H1N1pdm 2009 was able to spill over from humans to swine, it is not ideally adapted to establish sustained transmission among swine in the absence of further reassortment with other swine influenza virus lineages. Theses finding might reflect characteristics of swine husbandry in Sri Lanka, which has a low density pig population and remains isolated from global swine influenza viruses because of the absence of regular cross-border and cross-continental movements of swine. In contrast to some other parts of the world, we failed to isolate established lineages of swine influenza viruses, viz. Classical, North American triple reassortant and European Avian lineages. Sero prevalence to these endemic swine viruses was largely absent in local swine herds. In vitro replicative kinetic study indicated that H1N1pdm 2009 viruses isolated from swine have undergone some adaptation to swine led to decreased fitness for replication in human cells. / published_or_final_version / Public Health / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy