Das hier vorgestellte Vorhaben hat die Entwicklung eines neuartigen Sensor- und Messtechnikkonzepts zur Erfassung der Maximalwerte mechanischer Belastungen von Bauteilen bestehend aus Kohlenstofffaserverbundwerkstoffen mit polymerer Matrix (CFK) zum Ziel. Dazu wurden Untersuchungen zur Anwendbarkeit der spontanen Magnetisierung durch die martensitische Gefügeumwandlung metastabiler Stähle als möglicher Sensoreffekt durchgeführt. Als ein einfaches passives Sensorverfahren hat die Ausbildung einer spontanen Magnetisierung durch die Gefügeumwandlung ein denkbares Anwendungspotenzial. Es ist keine permanente Energieversorgung des Messsystems erforderlich, der Sensor ist vollständig und ohne Kontakt zur Umgebung im Bauteil einbettbar und eine äquivalente Information der maximalen Last ist unauslöschbar im Sensor eingeprägt. Durch kontakt- und zerstörungsfreie Verfahren kann das Auslesen erfolgen. Um die Eignung des Effekts zu überprüfen, erfolgten verschiedene Untersuchungen. Die Ergebnisse von Zugversuchen, durchgeführt an eingebetteten und nicht eingebetteten Sensorproben, und die Messwerte magnetischer Messungen der Sensormagnetisierung wurden zur Ermittlung einer Abhängigkeit zwischen dem Grad der Belastung und der Änderung der Magnetisierung infolge der martensitischen Transformation korreliert. Mittels metallografischer Untersuchungen sowie durch Röntgenbeugung erfolgte zudem der Vergleich zwischen dem Martensitgehalt und den Messergebnissen zur spontanen Magnetisierung. Der vorliegende Artikel beschreibt die Grundlagen des ausgewählten Sensorprinzips, die durchgeführten Arbeiten und erläutert die Ergebnisse der Untersuchungen.

An array of electret-biased frequency-selective resonant microelectromechanical system (MEMS) acoustic sensors was proposed to perform analysis of stress pulses created during an impact between two materials. This analysis allowed classification of the stiffness of the materials involved in the impact without applying post-impact signal processing. Arrays of resonant MEMS sensors provided filtering of the incident stress pulse and subsequent binning of time-domain waveforms into frequency-based spectra. Results indicated that different impact conditions and materials yielded different spectral characteristics. These characteristics, as well as the resulting sensor array responses, are discussed and applied to impact classification. Each individual sensor element in the array was biased by an in situ charged electret film. A microplasma discharge apparatus embedded within the microsensor allowed charging of the electret film after all device fabrication was complete. This enabled electret film integration using high-temperature surface micromachining processes that would typically lead to discharge of traditionally formed electret materials. This also eliminated the traditional wafer-bonding and post-fabrication assembly processes required in conventional electret integration approaches. The microplasma discharge process and resulting electret performance are discussed within the context of the MEMS acoustic sensor array.

This project was basically exploratory in the electrical properties of carbon nanotube (CNT) based materials. The direct current (DC) conductivity of CNT/polymer composites was computed by using equivalent circuit method and a three dimensional (3-D) numerical continuum model with the consideration of tunneling conduction. The effects of the potential barrier of polymer and the tortousity of CNTs on the conductivity were analyzed. It was found that both of percolation threshold and DC conductivity can be strongly affected by the potential barrier and the tortousity. The influence of contact resistance on DC conductivity was also computed, and the results revealed that contact resistance and tunneling resistance had significant influences on the conductivity, but did not affect the percolation threshold. The microstructure-dependent alternating current (AC) properties of CNT/polymer composites were investigated using the 3-D numerical continuum model. It was found that AC conductivity and critical frequency of CNT/polymer composites can be enhanced by increasing the curl ratio of CNTs. In the mid-range CNT mass fraction, with increasing curl ratio of CNTs, AC conductivity, interestingly, became frequency-dependent in low frequency range, which cannot be explained by reference to the percolation theory. A proper interpretation was given based on the linear circuit theory. It was also found that the critical frequency can also be affected by the size of CNT cluster. Series numerical formulas were derived by using a numerical capacitively and resistively junction model. In particular, this work introduced an equivalent resistor-capacitor (RC) circuit with simple definitions of the values of contact resistance and average mutual capacitance for CNT/polymer nanocomposites. Theoretical results were in good agreement with experimental data, and successfully predicted the effect of morphology on the AC properties of CNT/polymer composites. DC and AC conductivities of multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT)/graphene oxide (GO) hybrid films were measured for selected MWCNT mass fractions of 10%, 33.3%, 50%, 66.7%, and 83.3% using four-probe method. The experimental results were fitted using scaling law, and relatively high percolation threshold was found. This high percolation threshold was understood in terms of the potential energy and intrinsic ripples and warping in the freestanding graphene sheets. The capacitance of these hybrid films were measured using the voltmeter-ammeter-wattmeter test circuit with different voltages and heat treatments. The MWCNT/GO film showed relatively high specific capacitance (0.192F/cm3 for the mass fraction of 83.3%) and power factor compared to conventional dielectric capacitors. Both of measured capacitance and power factor can be enhanced by increasing testing voltages. The capacitance of MWCNT/GO films rapidly decreased after heat treatments above 160 ℃. This decrease was caused by redox reaction in the GO sheets. The capacitive behaviour of MWCNT/GO hybrid films was also interpreted by using the equivalent circuit model. Single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) and SWCNT/Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) films were used to form a piezoresistive strain sensor. Both of static and dynamic strain sensing behaviours of SWCNT and SWCNT/PVA films were measured. It was found that the sensitivities of these films decreased with increasing their thicknesses. The SWCNT film with a thickness of 1900 nm and SWCNT/PVA film exhibited viscoelastic sensing behaviour, because van der Waals attraction force allowed axial slippages of the smooth surface of nanotubes. A numerical model was derived based on the dynamic strain sensing behaviour. This model could be useful for designing CNT strain sensors. Finally, thermoelectric power (TEP) of deformed SWCNT films with various thicknesses was measured. It was observed that positive TEP of SWCNT films increased with increasing stain above the critical point. The experimental results were fitted by using a numerical model in terms of a variation of Nordheim-Gorter relation and fluctuation induced tunneling (FIT) model. From the numerical model, it was found that the increase of TEP above the critical strain resulted from the positive term of the contribution from the barrier region, and the effect of barrier regions decreases with increasing the thickness of the film.

Un nouveau type de Senseur de déformation Résistif Quantique (QRS) à base de nanotubes de carbone (CNT) a été développé pour le suivi de santé de structures composites (SHM). Les senseurs ont été fabriqués directement par pulvérisation en couche par couche (sLBL) sur la surface de fibres de verre ou de carbone d'une formulation de nanoComposites Polymères Conducteurs (CPC). La réponse des transducteurs CPC a été étudiée sous diverses sollicitations mécaniques en mode statique et dynamique. Différentes stratégies de suivi de santé des composites à l'aide de senseurs piézo-résistifs ont été comparées en termes d'efficacité de suivi des sollicitations mécaniques dans les domaines élastique et plastique et des endommagements. Les résultats montrent que les réponses des senseurs conservent toutes les caractéristiques statiques et dynamiques d'entrée fournissant ainsi des informations utiles pour le SHM. Cela permet d'envisager leur déploiement dans des pièces composites de grandes dimensions, pour évaluer les déformations et les concentrations de contraintes locales et ainsi faciliter la simulation et la modélisation dans ces zones critiques. La réponse électrique des QRS a aussi été utilisée pour évaluer l'accumulation d'endommagement dans les composites en association avec la microscopie et l'émission acoustique (AE) afin de détecter l'initiation de fissures et leur propagation dans des composites stratifiés. Sur la base des résultats obtenus dans cette étude, les QRS étudiés peuvent être considérées comme des capteurs en temps réel peu intrusifs qui semblent être tout à fait appropriés pour effectuer des mesures dvnamioues dans des aoolications d'inoénierie structurelle. / A new type of carbon nanotubes based Quantum Resistive Strain sensor (QRS sensor) for structural health monitoring (SHM) has been developed directly on glass fibers' surface via spray layer by layer (slbl) technique. The response of similar transducers was investigated under varying static and dynamic sollicitations. Different strategies of piezo-resistive sensing in GFRP are compared in terms of efficiency to follow mechanical solicitations and damages in both elastic and plastic demains. The results demonstrate that the sensors' output retains ail static and dynamic features of the input thus providing useful information for SHM and further can be extended for composite parts with large dimensions, to probe local stress/strain concentrations and facilitate the simulation of these critical areas. The electrical responses of QRS combined with those of the acoustic emission (AE) technique and microscopy have allowed investigating damage initiation and propagation in laminated composites. Based on the results obtained in this study, the investigated QRS can be considered as real time in situ non strongly invasive sensors which appear to be suitable for performing dynamic measurements in structural engineering applications.

Tecnologias para o monitoramento de componentes estruturais, como strain gauges e fibra ótica, são comumente utilizadas quando deseja-se obter informações sobre o estado de deformação. Ambas as técnicas exigem cabeamento, produzindo diversas adversidades em suas aplicações. Assim, novas tecnologias sem fio vem ganhando espaço, buscando monitoramento remoto e versátil. Sensores sem fio, utilizando a tecnologia de identificação por radiofrequência (RFID), se mostram atrativos meios de contornar estas adversidades. Estes sensores são formados por uma antena e um componente integrado de identificação RFID. O conceito de funcionamento do sensor é que ao ser fixado no componente que deseja ser monitorado, irá sofrer esforços mecânicos semelhantes aos esforços sofridos pelo componente e irá se deformar. Esta deformação conduzirá a uma alteração sua frequência de ressonância. Dessa forma, dependendo do tipo de esforço uma resposta será obtida. Para construção do sensor foi utilizado o material NY9220 para o corpo de prova uma chapa de alumínio de 2 mm de espessura. Para validação do sensor, incialmente foi realizado um estudo numérico pelo método de elementos finitos. Posteriormente uma etapa experimental foi realizada onde o sensor foi fixado através de resina ao corpo de prova. À medida que deslocamentos eram aplicados os dados da frequência de ressonância e deformação são coletados e estes correlacionados. Uma correlação linear entre frequência de ressonância e deformação foi verificada no modelo numérico e na parte experimental. O sensor se mostrou capaz de detectar e monitorar deformações em estruturas metálicas. / Technologies for the monitoring of structural components, such as strain gauges and fiber optic, are commonly used when information on the state of deformation is desired. Both techniques require cabling, producing various adversities in their applications. Thus, new wireless technologies have been gaining space, seeking remote and versatile monitoring. Wireless sensors, using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology, are attractive means of getting around these adversities. These sensors consist of an antenna and an integrated identification component RFID. The concept of operation of the sensor is that when attached to the component it wishes to be monitored, it will undergo similar stresses to the stresses suffered by the component and will deform. This strain will lead to a change in its resonant frequency. In this way, depending on the type of effort, a response will be obtained. For the construction of the sensor was used the material NY9220 for the specimen a sheet of aluminum of 2 mm of thickness. For the validation of the sensor, a numerical study was initially carried out by the finite element method. Subsequently an experimental stage was performed where the sensor was fixed through resin to the specimen. As displacements were applied, the resonance and strain frequency data were collected and correlated. A linear correlation between resonance frequency and strain was verified in the numerical model and in the experimental part. The sensor was able to detect and monitor deformations in metal structures.

Tecnologias para o monitoramento de componentes estruturais, como strain gauges e fibra ótica, são comumente utilizadas quando deseja-se obter informações sobre o estado de deformação. Ambas as técnicas exigem cabeamento, produzindo diversas adversidades em suas aplicações. Assim, novas tecnologias sem fio vem ganhando espaço, buscando monitoramento remoto e versátil. Sensores sem fio, utilizando a tecnologia de identificação por radiofrequência (RFID), se mostram atrativos meios de contornar estas adversidades. Estes sensores são formados por uma antena e um componente integrado de identificação RFID. O conceito de funcionamento do sensor é que ao ser fixado no componente que deseja ser monitorado, irá sofrer esforços mecânicos semelhantes aos esforços sofridos pelo componente e irá se deformar. Esta deformação conduzirá a uma alteração sua frequência de ressonância. Dessa forma, dependendo do tipo de esforço uma resposta será obtida. Para construção do sensor foi utilizado o material NY9220 para o corpo de prova uma chapa de alumínio de 2 mm de espessura. Para validação do sensor, incialmente foi realizado um estudo numérico pelo método de elementos finitos. Posteriormente uma etapa experimental foi realizada onde o sensor foi fixado através de resina ao corpo de prova. À medida que deslocamentos eram aplicados os dados da frequência de ressonância e deformação são coletados e estes correlacionados. Uma correlação linear entre frequência de ressonância e deformação foi verificada no modelo numérico e na parte experimental. O sensor se mostrou capaz de detectar e monitorar deformações em estruturas metálicas. / Technologies for the monitoring of structural components, such as strain gauges and fiber optic, are commonly used when information on the state of deformation is desired. Both techniques require cabling, producing various adversities in their applications. Thus, new wireless technologies have been gaining space, seeking remote and versatile monitoring. Wireless sensors, using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology, are attractive means of getting around these adversities. These sensors consist of an antenna and an integrated identification component RFID. The concept of operation of the sensor is that when attached to the component it wishes to be monitored, it will undergo similar stresses to the stresses suffered by the component and will deform. This strain will lead to a change in its resonant frequency. In this way, depending on the type of effort, a response will be obtained. For the construction of the sensor was used the material NY9220 for the specimen a sheet of aluminum of 2 mm of thickness. For the validation of the sensor, a numerical study was initially carried out by the finite element method. Subsequently an experimental stage was performed where the sensor was fixed through resin to the specimen. As displacements were applied, the resonance and strain frequency data were collected and correlated. A linear correlation between resonance frequency and strain was verified in the numerical model and in the experimental part. The sensor was able to detect and monitor deformations in metal structures.

Ao longo dos últimos anos, redes de Bragg em fibras ópticas (FBG, do inglês Fiber Bragg Gratings) vêm sendo frequentemente utilizadas como sensores de deformação e de temperatura. O problema da indistinguibilidade entre esses dois parâmetros físicos, presente durante medidas realizadas por esse tipo de sensor, tem sido bem resolvido com o uso de duas FBGs com comprimentos de onda distintos. Muito embora esse artifício tenha apresentado bons resultados, ele também oferece algumas desvantagens, sendo uma delas a necessidade de duas fontes de luz para diferentes comprimentos de onda. Em virtude disto, este trabalho apresenta um sistema capaz de realizar medidas de temperatura e deformação, simultaneamente, utilizando apenas uma fonte de luz. O método baseia-se na inscrição de duas redes de Bragg com comprimentos de onda próximos (no caso, 810 e 860 nm) na mesma posição da fibra óptica. Apesar de a separação entre os comprimentos de onda das FBGs ser aparentemente pequena (cerca de 50 nm), o sistema respondeu precisamente a variações de deformação e temperatura. Dessa forma, a utilização de apenas uma fonte de luz no sistema é corretamente justificada, uma vez que, com essa alteração, o custo do sistema é substancialmente reduzido. Ademais, o uso de comprimentos de onda em torno de 800 nm também barateia o sistema, pois os CCDs usados neste intervalo espectral são menos onerosos do que aqueles tradicionalmente usados em comprimentos de onda de comunicações ópticas (1,55 μm). / In recent years, fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) have been frequently used as strain and temperature sensors. Several studies have tackled the problem of distinguishing between these two physical parameters using a dual-wavelength sensor. Although these sensors have shown good results, they have a few drawbacks, one of them being the need for two light sources with different wavelengths. We present an approach for simultaneous strain and temperature sensing which uses only one light source. The method relies on writing FBGs with nearby wavelengths (for instance, at 810 and 860 nm) at the same section of the fiber. Even though the Bragg wavelengths are separated by just a few nanometers (about 50 nm), it is possible to accurately measure variations in strain and temperature. One of the major advantages of this approach is the use of a unique light source, what reduces substantially the system cost. Another advantage is the lower cost of array detectors at 800 nm when compared to those of telecom wavelengths (1,55 μm).

The application of piezoelectric sensors such as the ultrasonic transducer has significantly enhanced the fields of nondestructive evaluation (NDE). Their application of piezoelectric materials allows for the sensing of low energy, high frequency acoustic emission (AE) events such as fatigue cracking in metals and delamination in composites. Utilizing the physical characteristics of these AE waves, the location of these structural defects can then be source located by means of time-of-flight trilateration. The real time sensing of such events has led to the field of structural health monitoring (SHM) and has revolutionized NDE. Furthermore, with the application of modern micro-electromechanical system-based (MEMS) technology, the fields of NDE and SHM can be improved greatly, and sensing instrumentation simplified. A novel piezoresistive-based MEMS strain sensor is presented as this improvement to NDE and SHM. The ultrathin silicon membrane-based (USM) strain sensor's ability to capture an AE signal is demonstrated by a Hsu-Nielsen source and shows comparable frequency content to a commercial piezoceramic ultrasonic transducer. To the knowledge of the authors, this makes the USM strain sensor the first known piezoresistive strain sensor capable of recording low energy AE. The novel improvements to NDE and SHM arise from the sensor's low minimum detectable strain and wide frequency bandwidth, enabling a dual-use application of both AE and static strain sensing. The USM sensor's ability to document quasi-static bending is demonstrated and once again compared with an ultrasonic transducer, which provides no significant response. This dual-use application is proposed to effectively combine the uses of both strain and ultrasonic transducer sensor types within one sensor, lending itself novel and useful to NDE and SHM. The potential benefits include enhanced sensitivity, reduced sensor size and cost, and reduced instrumentation complexity. / Master of Science / Visual inspection for cracks and defects has long been staples of assessing structural health throughout human history. These surface imperfections are an obvious hindrance to structural integrity and routine observation and inspection is needed to ensure a structure's safety. With the progression of technology and the discovery of piezoelectric materials, more advanced methods have been devised to detect and source locate not only surface level but sub-surface cracking. This has been accomplished through the use of piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers to monitor the propagation of acoustic emission (AE) vibrations, which are the result of energy redistribution by events such as cracking. The remote monitoring of AE events has led to the growth of the nondestructive evaluation (NDE) field, where these cracks and defects can be located by the detection of their AE source. These transducers, however, are met with limitations in their applications. Operating off the piezoelectric effect allows for a superb response to low energy, high frequency excitation characteristic of AE, but results in no response to quasi-static strain measurements, such as that of a slowly applied bending load on a plate. In the work herein, modern micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) based technology is utilized to devise a sensor capable of both AE and static strain measurements. The dual sensing of both of these measurements can allow for the source location of cracking events along with the monitoring of structure strain, effectively combining the use of two sensors into one. This dual-application use can have a great impact on the evaluation of critical structures like bridges and aircraft and simplify and reduce costs inherent to nondestructive evaluation.

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