Dual Gradient Drilling is an exciting technology which promises to solve the current technical hurdles and economic risks of Deepwater Drilling. Several techniques for Dual Gradient Drilling have been proposed to the industry. One such method involves installing a subsea booster pump at the seafloor with the aim of returning the drilling fluid back to the rig. The pump will manage annular pressures in the wellbore as circulation rates and mud weights vary and will permit early detection of wellbore influxes. Any such pump chosen to achieve this objective will be subjected to very high differential pressures and will be faced with the onerous task of lifting very abrasive and viscous mud slurries from the sea floor back to the drilling rig. This distance in deep water may be well within the range of about 4, 000 – 12,000 feet depending on the operating water depth of the rig. Several pump technologies available to the industry were examined. Piston pumps are very efficient and can withstand the high differential pressures encountered in the Mudlift Drilling System. However, their drawbacks are their large size and weight and high initial capital cost and maintenance costs. Centrifugal pumps on the other hand are relatively smaller than piston and diaphragm pumps and are generally less expensive. Disc pumps, with their non-impingement design are able to handle solids and fluids with a high gas volume fraction but, like centrifugal pumps, are generally less efficient than reciprocating pumps. Diaphragm pumps are capable of maintaining a constant rate regardless of pressure fluctuations. They can handle very abrasive solids with limited wear on the pump. They also excel at handling very viscous fluids and they can be modified to handle up to 95% gas volume fraction. Like piston pumps, they have very high efficiencies. The potential of each of these pump technologies to meet the requirements for the Mudlift Drilling System was examined in this thesis. The benefits and drawbacks of each of these pump technologies were highlighted and modifications to meet the demands of the mudlift system evaluated.

The number of subsea production systems placed in deepwater locations in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) has increased significantly in the last ten to fifteen years. Currently, API-RP2A (2000 a,b) designates the GOM as a low seismic zone, and thus does not require seismic effects to be considered during the design process. However, there have been a number of seismic events with Richter magnitudes between 3.0 and 4.9 that have occurred in this region. As a result, questions have been raised regarding the seismic performance of deepwater subsea systems. This thesis presents an analytical parametric study where a prototype subsea structure was selected based on a survey of subsea systems. The baseline analytical model consisted of a single casing embedded in soft clay soils, which supported a lumped mass at a cantilevered height above the soil. A number of the model characteristics were varied in the parametric study to simulate the structural response of a range of subsea structures. This thesis discusses the impact of API-RP2A Zone 1 and 2 design seismic demands for the performance of subsea structures. The results from the subsequent analyses show that the stresses and deflections produced by the Zone 1 and 2 peak ground accelerations fall within the allowable limits.

Subsea pipelines form an integral part of the infrastructure associated with offshore oil and gas developments. These pipelines fulfill a range of functions from linking extraction wells to other subsea infrastructure to transporting products onshore, or to a central processing facility. Ancillary pipelines may also be present for gas or water injection to the reservoir or transporting additives. Pipelines are typically installed directly onto the seabed and, in the absence of significant drivers to undertake burial operations, they may remain on the seabed for the remainder of their design life. This is typically the case for deepwater developments. Subsea pipelines are subjected to a wide range of load cases including, self weight, installation loads, thermal and pressure driven expansion and hydrodynamic loading. Design of pipeline systems to accommodate these load cases requires an understanding of pipe-soil interaction. This thesis reports the results of a research study investigating pipe-soil interaction on a clay seabed, as relevant to the design of subsea pipeline systems. This study has utilised numerical analysis techniques based on the finite difference code FLAC to investigate a range of problem definitions. These problem definitions include pipelines subject to both vertical loading (V) and combined vertical and horizontal (V-H) loading. Factors such as variation in interface conditions, large strain and large displacement effects, soil unit weight effects and variation in shear strength conditions were considered in these problem definitions. Reliability based analysis techniques have also been used to investigate both V and V-H loading problem definitions. The analyses and investigations undertaken as part of this study generally achieved the following; reproduction and validation of earlier research with additional interpretation, extension of problem definitions to deeper pipeline embedment depths and investigation of pipe-soil interaction problem definitions that have not previously been considered. Reliability based analysis techniques have also provided some interesting insights into the impact of soil shear strength variation as well as providing a fundamental link between safety factors and probability of failure. Application to design practice of this, and similar studies, has been considered as part of this thesis and potential areas for future research have also been suggested.

An insulation technique has been developed which contains a single or combination of materials to help minimize heat loss in actual industrial applications. For the petroleum industry, insulation for deep sea piping is one of the greatest challenges which would prevent the industry from meeting the high demand for oil through exploration into deeper ocean environments. At current seafloor depths (5,000~10,000ft), pipeline insulation is essential in preventing pipeline blockage resulting from the solidification of paraffin waxes and / or hydrate formation which exist in crude oil. To maintain crude oil temperatures above the paraffin solidification point (68°C or 155°F), new and better insulation techniques are essential to minimize pipeline heat loss and maintain crude oil temperatures. Therefore, the objective of this investigation was to determine whether or not the thermal resistance of a new insulation concept, which involves IIT (Interstitial Insulation Technology) with screen wire, was greater than existing readily available commercial products through analytical modeling and experimentation. The model takes into account both conforming and nonconforming interfaces at the wire screen contacts within the interstitial space between coaxial pipes. In addition, confirmation was needed to determine whether or not laboratory testing of simulated coupons translate to thermal performance for a prototype pipe segment that fabricated with two layers of low conductivity wire-screen (stainless steel) as the interstitial insulation material. Both the inner and outer surface temperatures of the coaxial pipes were measured in order to evaluate the effective thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of the insulation concept. The predicted results from the model compared very favorably with the experimental results, confirming both the trends and magnitudes of the experimental data. In other words, whether the reduction in heat transfer observed for small laboratory samples was realistic for application to a pipeline configuration. This effort involved both analytical modeling for all thermal resistances and experimental test runs for validation of the analytical model. Finally, it was a goal of this investigation to develop a simplified model for a multilayer composite structure which will include radiation heat transfer exchange among the layers that constitute the insulation. With the developed model, feasibility and performance characteristics of the insulation concept were predicted. The thermal predictions have demonstrated the thermal competitiveness of the interstitial insulation technology.

The Subsea blowout preventer (BOP) which is latched to a subsea wellhead is one of several barriers in the well to prevent kicks and blowouts and it is the most important and critical equipment, as it becomes the last line of protection against blowout. The BOP system used in Subsea drilling operations is considered a Safety – Critical System, with a high severity consequence following its failure. Following past offshore blowout incidents such as the most recent Macondo in the Gulf of Mexico, there have been investigations, research, and improvements sought for improved understanding of the BOP system and its operation. This informs the need for a systematic re-evaluation of the Subsea BOP system to understand its associated risk and reliability and identify critical areas/aspects/components. Different risk analysis techniques were surveyed and the Failure modes effect and criticality analysis (FMECA) selected to be used to drive the study in this thesis. This is due to it being a simple proven cost effective process that can add value to the understanding of the behaviours and properties of a system, component, software, function or other. The output of the FMECA can be used to inform or support other key engineering tasks such as redesigning, enhanced qualification and testing activity or maintenance for greater inherent reliability and reduced risk potential. This thesis underscores the application of the FMECA technique to critique associated risk of the Subsea BOP system. System Functional diagrams was developed with boundaries defined, a FMECA were carried out and an initial select list of critical component failure modes identified. The limitations surrounding the confidence of the FMECA failure modes ranking outcome based on Risk priority number (RPN) is presented and potential variations in risk interpretation are discussed. The main contribution in this thesis is an innovative framework utilising Multicriteria decision making (MCDA) analysis techniques with consideration of fuzzy interval data is applied to the Subsea BOP system critical failure modes from the FMECA analysis. It utilised nine criticality assessment criteria deduced from expert consultation to obtain a more reliable ranking of failure modes. The MCDA techniques applied includes the technique for order of Preference for similarity to the Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), Fuzzy TOPSIS, TOPSIS with interval data, and Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment of Evaluations (PROMETHEE). The outcome of the Multi-criteria analysis of the BOP system clearly shows failures of the Wellhead connector, LMRP hydraulic connector and Control system related failure as the Top 3 most critical failure with respect to a well control. The critical failure mode and components outcome from the analysis in this thesis is validated using failure data from industry database and a sensitivity analysis carried out. The importance of maintenance, testing and redundancy to the BOP system criticality was established by the sensitivity analysis. The potential for MCDA to be used for more specific analysis of criteria for a technology was demonstrated. Improper maintenance, inspection, testing (functional and pressure) are critical to the BOP system performance and sustenance of a high reliability level. Material selection and performance of components (seals, flanges, packers, bolts, mechanical body housings) relative to use environment and operational conditions is fundamental to avoiding failure mechanisms occurrence. Also worthy of notice is the contribution of personnel and organisations (by way of procedures to robustness and verification structure to ensure standard expected practices/rules are followed) to failures as seen in the root cause discussion. OEMs, operators and drilling contractors to periodically review operation scenarios relative to BOP system product design through the use of a Failure reporting analysis and corrective action system. This can improve design of monitoring systems, informs requirement for re-qualification of technology and/or next generation designs. Operations personnel are to correctly log in failures in these systems, and responsible Authority to ensure root cause analysis is done to uncover underlying issue initiating and driving failures.

Variable frequency drives (VFD) and subsea (umbilical) cables are frequently used in electrical submersible pump (ESP) systems for offshore platforms. There are two basic system configurations for ESP systems; VFD can be installed on the platform and the motor is connected to it through an umbilical cable, and VFD and the motor are installed closely and they are connected to the system through an umbilical cable. In this thesis, the pros and cons of each configuration are mentioned, but the focus is on the system with a VFD controlled motor through a long umbilical cable. A 36-pulse VFD is studied. Since multilevel VFDs have high frequency harmonics, high frequency modeling of the umbilical cable is used, and skin effect is also taken into consideration in the cable. The effect of the interactions between the umbilical cable and high frequency harmonics on the motor terminal voltage is explored.

Subsea development and production of hydrocarbons is challenging due to remote andharsh conditions. Recent technology development with high speed communication to subsea anddownhole equipment has created a new opportunity to both monitor and control abnormal or undesirableevents with a proactive and preventative approach rather than a reactive approach. Twospecific technology developments are high speed, long-distance fiber optic sensing for productionand completion systems and wired pipe for drilling communications. Both of these communicationsystems offer unprecedented high speed and accurate sensing of equipment and processes that aresusceptible to uncontrolled well situations, leaks, issues with flow assurance, structural integrity,and platform stability, as well as other critical monitoring and control issues. The scope of thisdissertation is to design monitoring and control systems with new theoretical developments andpractical applications. For estimators, a novel `1-norm method is proposed that is less sensitiveto data with outliers, noise, and drift in recovering the true value of unmeasured parameters. Forcontrollers, a similar `1-norm strategy is used to design optimal control strategies that utilize a comprehensivedesign with multivariate control and nonlinear dynamic optimization. A framework forsolving large scale dynamic optimization problems with differential and algebraic equations is detailedfor estimation and control. A first area of application is in fiber optic sensing and automationfor subsea equipment. A post-installable fiber optic clamp is used to transmit structural informationfor a tension leg platform. A proposed controller automatically performs ballast operationsthat both stabilize the floating structure and minimize fatigue damage to the tendons that hold thestructure in place. A second area of application is with managed pressure drilling with movinghorizon estimation and nonlinear model predictive control. The purpose of this application is tomaximize rate of drilling penetration, maintain pressure in the borehole, respond to unexpected gasinflux, detect cuttings loading and pack-off, and better manage abnormal events with the drillingprocess through automation. The benefit of high speed data accessibility is quantified as well asthe potential benefit from a combined control strategy versus separate controllers.

[pt] O petróleo tem importância inegável nos tempos atuais. Junto com outros combustíveis fósseis, representa uma considerável parcela da matriz energética da sociedade. Porém esta é uma fonte de energia não renovável. Por isso a medida que o petróleo é produzido em regiões de fácil acesso, sua fonte vai se esgotando e criando a necessidade de se explorar em regiões cada vez mais inóspitas. Diante deste cenário o processamento submarino na produção de óleo e gás tem grande relevância ao permitir a produção de petróleo em regiões onde não seria possível a produção sem esta opção. O objetivo deste trabalho é comparar 2 sistemas de processamento submarino, um com bomba multifásica e outro com separador submarino, visando identificar as oportunidades de aplicação para cada sistema e o estado da arte atual de cada tecnologia. O grande salto do processamento submarino será um futuro de produção sem o uso de plataformas. Cenário este que já se observa nos dias de hoje em alguns campos de gás. O campo de gás foi o primeiro a apresentar a possibilidade de produção sem o uso de plataforma por possuir energia suficiente para escoar por distâncias maiores sem necessidade de incremento artificial de pressão. Porém com o avanço da tecnologia da bomba e dos separadores submarinos, o futuro indica a aplicação deste processo também em campos de óleo. Este trabalho disponibiliza uma ferramenta simplificada para análise de escoamento multifásico de fácil acesso que permite o cálculo sem a necessidade de softwares avançados e de difícil acesso. Apesar de ser uma ferramenta simplificada é de grande utilidade para cálculos rápidos sem necessidade de detalhamento. / [en] Oil has undeniable importance in modern times. Along with other fossil fuels, represents a considerable portion of the energy matrix of society. However this is non-renewable energy source. As the oil is been produced in areas of easy access, its source is being exhausting and creating the need to explore in inhospitable regions. Looking to this scenario subsea processing of oil and gas has great importance to allow oil production in regions where the production would not be possible without this option. The objective of this study is to compare two subsea processing systems, one with a multiphase pump and other with a separator and a monophase pump, identify opportunities of each system and the current state of the art of each technology. The leap of subsea processing will be a future of production systems without the use of platforms. This scenario already being felt today in some gas fields. The gas field was the first to present the possibility of production without the use of the platform due to the fact that gas fields has enough energy to flow over large distances without the need of artificial lifting. However, with the advancement in pump technology and subsea separators, the future indicates the application of this procedure also in oil fields. This paper provides a simplified calculation tool for multiphase flow of easy access that allows the calculation without the need of advanced commercial software. Despite being a simplified tool is useful for quick calculations.

Este trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento de uma técnica de controle cooperativo aplicado para embarcações dotadas de sistema de posicionamento dinâmico (sistema DP). Um caso ilustrativo é estudado: o lançamento de um equipamento submarino utilizando duas embarcações DP. Neste exemplo, o sistema cooperativo controla a distância relativa das duas embarcações DP. As vantagens deste método se da no aumento da janela operacional, na tensão no cabo de lançamento que pode ser reduzida pela metade, entre outras. Um mapeamento dinâmico foi obtido utilizando um simulador 2D simplificado previamente validado por comparação com testes experimentais e o simulador no domínio do tempo TPN Tanque de Provas Numérico. Nestes mapas, duas regiões foram definidas, de ocorrência e não ocorrência de afrouxamento nos cabos em função da distancia entre as embarcações, profundidade do equipamento submarino e período da onda. Este mapa definiu as posições desejadas das embarcações para cada profundidade do equipamento. Foi proposto um controle da posição relativa das embarcações tentando manter os movimentos do ponto de conexão em oposição de fase. Isto evita a ocorrência de afrouxamentos no cabo de lançamento. Para isso, um algoritmo baseado em estimação de fase (Transformada de Hilbert) associado a um controlador PD foi implementado. Os resultados mostraram que o controle para ondas regulares é efetivo. Adicionalmente, o controle de pagamento de linha recebe as medidas do movimento vertical do ponto de conexão, e compensa esse movimento, mantendo constante seu comprimento. O controle foi implementado considerando erros de 10% e atrasos de até 1,5s nas medidas. Os resultados confirmaram que o controle pode eliminar os picos de tensão e a ocorrência de afrouxamento no cabo de lançamento. A conclusão deste trabalho sugere que a estratégia apropriada do controle, considerando ondas regulares, é combinar o controle de posição e o controle de pagamento de linha. O controle de posição, acoplado ao mapeamento dinâmico, define um caminho ótimo a ser seguido durante o içamento do equipamento, tentando manter as embarcações próximas da região de não ocorrência de afrouxamentos. / This work presents the development of cooperative control technique applied to vessels equipped with dynamic positioning (DP) system. An illustrative case study is suggested: the launching of subsea equipment using two DP vessels. In this example, the cooperative system controls the relative distance between the DP vessels. One of the advantages of this method is the increase of operations safety and operational window, since, among other factors, the tension in the launching cable is reduced by half. Initially, it was proposed the control of vessels relative positions, trying to keep the connection point movements in counter-phase. This avoids the slackening of the launching cable. For this, an algorithm based on phase estimator (Hilbert transform) associated with a PD control was implemented. The results showed that for regular waves this strategy was effective. A dynamic mapping was then obtained using simplified 2D simulator, previously validated by comparison with experimental tests. In these maps, two regions are defined - occurrence or non-occurrence of cable slackening - as a function of the distance of the vessels and the depth of the subsea equipment. This map defines the proper set-point for the DP systems for each depth of the subsea equipment. This map is used to define the best relative position for the vessels. In addition, the hoisting control receives the measurements of the vertical motion of the connection point, and compensates its motion, trying to maintain a constant lowering velocity. This control was implemented considering errors of 10% and delay of 0.5s in the measurements. The results confirmed that the control is able to eliminate the tension peaks and the occurrence of slackening in the launching cable. The conclusion is that the appropriate control strategy, considering regular waves, is to combine the control of both position of the vessels and hoisting of the cable. Therefore the position control, coupled with dynamic mapping, defines the \"optimal path\" to be followed during the line hoisting, trying to keep the vessels as close as possible to the \"no slackening\" region.

Motivada pelos inúmeros desafios relacionados à exploração de petróleo na região do pré-sal, onde o ambiente agressivo aliado com a grande profundidade são fatores sempre presentes, a busca por materiais alternativos para aplicações em válvulas ganhou destaque. As válvulas subsea, essenciais para projetos de exploração nestas áreas são consideradas um desafio ainda maior. Dessa maneira, estudos e ensaios de desempenho em revestimentos anticorrosivos orgânicos nesse ambiente tornam-se necessários. O objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar a resistência à corrosão e ao desgaste do revestimento anticorrosivo orgânico ECTFE (Halar®) para a aplicação em válvulas industriais do tipo esfera para operações subsea, através da realização de ensaios em corpos de prova e em protótipos, perante as condições simuladas do ambiente agressivo na qual deverão operar em conformidade com o programa de qualificação do revestimento D-SMA/ING/SPF/TCNA-14-00047. Para a realização dos ensaios, foram projetados sistemas de tubulações fechadas (loopings), nos quais os protótipos foram instalados. Os parâmetros de testes estabelecidos, assim como os dados monitorados pelos sensores instalados, foram coletados durante todo o período de teste. Os ensaios definidos para a avaliação do revestimento orgânico em protótipos foram: ciclos de pressão, circulação sob vazão, circulação com água arenosa e ensaios de corrosão com e sem defeito imposto no revestimento. Complementarmente, corpos de prova em escala reduzida foram submetidos a ensaio de adesão e de fadiga. Os resultados obtidos foram conclusivos e o revestimento mostrou-se resistente às condições impostas aos protótipos, uma vez que não foram detectadas descontinuidades consideradas relevantes segundo os critérios de aceitação pré-estabelecidos em procedimento. / The search for alternative materials for applications in valves has been highlighted motivated by the numerous challenges related to oil and gas in the pre-salt region, where the aggressive environment combined with great depth are always present factors. The subsea valves, essential for exploration projects in these areas, are considered an even bigger challenge, thus, studies and performance tests on organic anti-corrosion coatings in this environment become necessary. The purpose of this study is to evaluate resistance to corrosion and wear of organic anti-corrosion coating ECTFE (Halar®) for application of industrial ball valves for subsea operations, by conducting tests on specimens and prototypes, under simulated harsh environment conditions in which they should operate in accordance with the coating qualification program D-SMA / ING / SPF / TCNA-14-00047. Closed pipes systems are designed (loops) for the carrying out of the tests, in which the prototypes were installed. The set of test parameters as well as the monitored data by installed sensors were collected during the entire test period. The defined tests for the evaluation of the organic coating in prototypes were: pressure cycles, flow rate circulation, circulation in soapy water and corrosion tests with and without defects imposed in the coating. In addition, reduced specimens were submitted to adhesion and fatigue tests. The results were conclusive and the coating was resistant to the imposed conditions on prototypes, since relevant discontinuities were not detected according to pre-established acceptance criteria for the procedure.