Thesis (MScAgric (Plant Pathology)--Stellenbosch University, 2008. Includes bibliography.summary,list of figures and appendices. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Fusarium spp. and Aspergillus spp. are toxin-producing fungi associated with maize and groundnut. Fusarium verticillioides produces fumonisins in maize, and Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxins in maize and groundnut kernels. Both toxins are responsible for carcinogenesis in humans and animals. Contamination of maize and groundnut with mycotoxins is often most severe in rural areas where subsistence farmers are unaware of their existence and follow agricultural practices that might contribute to their production. A questionnaire was, therefore, compiled to investigate agricultural decisions in rural areas that may influence mycotoxin contamination of crops. During 2006 and 2007, maize and groundnut samples were collected in the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), Limpopo, and Mpumalanga provinces. Mycotoxin levels were quantified using the ELISA technique, and the incidence of Fusarium spp. in maize grain was determined by plating maize kernels out on Fusarium selective medium. Fumonisin-producing Fusarium spp. were also quantified using real-time PCR (TaqMan). The incidence of A. flavus and A. parasiticus in groundnut was determined by plating out kernels on potato dextrose agar. Fumonisin contamination levels in maize samples ranged from 0-21.8 parts per million (ppm) and aflatoxin levels ranged from 0- 49 parts per billion (ppb), depending on the region where samples were collected. Aflatoxin levels in groundnut ranged from 0-160.1 ppb. Fusarium verticillioides was the most common Fusarium sp. in maize followed by F. subglutinans and F. proliferatum, respectively. Regression analyses showed a positive correlation between fumonisin-producing Fusarium species when determined by real-time PCR and fumonisin concentration (r2=0.866). Regression analyses further showed a highly significant positive correlation between A. flavus and aflatoxin contamination (r2=0.10235). Samples from northern KZN contained levels of mycotoxins that were far in excess of the maximum levels set by the Food and Drug Administration in the USA. In South Africa there are currently no regulations with regard to the maximum allowable levels of fumonisin in human food. The high incidence of mycotoxin contamination of human food in subsistence farming systems indicates the need for awareness programmes and further research. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Fusarium spp. en Aspergillus spp. is toksien-produserende fungi wat met mielies en grondbone geassosieer word. Fusarium verticillioides produseer fumonisiene in mielies, terwyl, A. flavus aflatoksiene in mielies en grondbone produseer. Beide toksiene is karsinogenies vir mens en dier. Die vlakke van toksien-kontaminasie is meestal die ergste in landelike gebiede waar bestaansboere onbewus is daarvan. Landboupraktyke wat deur die boere toegepas word vererger dikwels die probleem. ‘n Vraelys is saamgestel om vas te stel watter landboupraktyke in landelike gebiede toegepas word, en hoe dit toksien-kontaminasie in mielies en grondbone beinvloed. In die 2006 en 2007 seisoene is mielie- en grondboonmonsters in Kwa-Zulu-Natal (KZN), die Oos Kaap, Limpopo en die Mpumalanga provinsie versamel. Toksien-vlakke is gekwantifiseer deur gebruik te maak van die ELISA tegniek. Die insidensie van Fusarium spp. in mielies was bepaal deur pitte op Fusariumselektiewe agar uit te plaat. Fumonisien-produserende Fusarium spp. was ook gekwantifiseer deur van kwantitatiewe PCR (TaqMan) gebruik te maak. Die voorkoms van A. flavus en A. parasiticus is bepaal deurdat mielie- en grondboonpitte op aartappel dekstrose agar uit te plaat. Fumonisien-vlakke in die mieliemonsters het gewissel van 0-21.8 dele per miljoen (dpm), terwyl aflatoksienvlakke gewissel het van 0-49 dele per biljoen (dpb), afhangende van die omgewing waar monsters versamel is. Aflatoksien vlakke in die grondboonmonsters het gewissel van 0-160.1 dpb. Fusarium verticillioides is die meeste vanuit mielies geisoleer, gevolg deur F. subglutinans en F. proliferatum. Regressie analises het ‘n positiewe korrelasie tussen fumonisien konsentrasie en fumonisien-produserende spp. aangedui waar daar gebruik gemaak is van die kwantitatiewe PCR (r2= 0.866). Regressie analises het ‘n hoogs betekenisvolle positiewe korrelasie getoon tussen A. flavus en aflatoksien kontaminasie (r2=0.10). Monsters van noordelike KZN het toksienvlakke bevat ver bokant die maksimum toelaatbare vlakke is soos bepaal deur die Food en Drug Administrasie in die Verenigde State van Amerika. Daar is tans geen regulasies in Suid Afrika wat die maksimum toelaatbare vlakke van fumonisiene in voedsel vir menslike gebruik bepaal nie. Die hoë voorkoms van mikotoksien-kontaminasie in bestaansboer-sisteme, dui die belangrikheid van verdere navorsing en bewusmakings-progamme aan.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg 2016. / Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) occurs when wild animals depredate crops and livestock and threaten human safety, which subsequently results in retaliatory or deliberate persecution of wildlife by farmers. The aim of my study was to establish how subsistence and commercial farmers that ranched or cultivated in the same geographic area were affected by and responded to problem animals in selected localities of north-eastern South Africa. I first conducted a global meta-analysis of the scientific literature concerning HWC, which revealed several findings. 1) Local communities contiguous with protected areas worldwide were affected by the highest number of damage-causing wildlife (49 species) compared with subsistence farmers and commercial farmers. 2) Contrary to my prediction, subsistence farmers did not experience the highest number of depredation incidences, instead, commercial farmers were more prone to HWC, possibly due to a greater research focus on commercial agri-pastoral farming. 3) Consistent with the prediction that developing countries could potentially experience regular encounters with wildlife, rural people in Africa and Asia experienced conflict with the broadest diversity of mammals. 4) South Africa offers a regional exemplar of global patterns in HWC. Subsequently, I investigated how subsistence and commercial farmers that operated concurrently in selected localities of north-eastern South Africa were affected by and managed damage-causing wildlife. In addition, I gauged the attitudes and opinions of subsistence and commercial farmers to wildlife and conservation issues, and assessed the attitudes and opinions of conservation practitioners towards people living on protected area boundaries. Finally, I investigated the movement patterns of African wild dog (wild dog) Lycaon pictus in areas where they are lethally persecuted, as a case study of HWC. To achieve these aims, I employed a combination of methods and approaches to acquire information regarding the demographic and physical attributes (such as fencing and use of irrigation) of subsistence and commercial farms, in addition to respondent attitudes and opinions that were collectively important predictors of the scale of HWC. These included semi-structured questionnaire interviews, site inspections on farms and subsistence gardens to verify farm attributes, geographic information system attitude indexes (methods to visualise the spatial distribution of respondent attitudes) and satellite or radio-collared wild dog individuals. Several variables, such as large households (≥ seven occupants per household) and environmental-related challenges (e.g. insect pests, soil erosion, and the absence of electrified fencing) exacerbated HWC, especially regarding carnivores. Maize Zea mays, was the most frequently raided crop (by primates) on both subsistence and commercial farms. Poultry and young livestock were most often depredated throughout the study sites, with caracal Caracal caracal, wild dog and leopard Panthera pardus being the main depredators. My findings supported the prediction that commercial farmers more readily shot and poisoned wildlife compared to subsistence farmers. Commercial farmers most frequently persecuted carnivores, while subsistence farmers mainly persecuted primates. Subsistence and commercial farmers held positive and negative attitudes towards wildlife for different reasons. Collectively, positive attitudes related to ecocentric values (concern for the ecosystem) such as environmental education, tourism and a willingness to learn about non-harmful damage-causing animal control, while negative attitudes pertained to stray wildlife and resource damage, specifically to crop and livestock depredation. Although conservation practitioners held positive attitudes of local human communities (relating to community-conservation oriented values), negative attitudes also existed (pertaining to a disinterest and indifference towards the socio-economic needs of local human communities and poaching). My study of wild dogs showed that although the home range of free-ranging packs intersected with lethal-controlling commercial farmers, one pack in the Waterberg, Limpopo Province, reduced potential encounters with farmers by utilising vegetation thickets as refugia. I concluded that subsistence farmers and commercial farmers were similarly affected by HWC but differed in the type of farming commodity depredated. While commercial farmers may be able to discourage depredation by using fencing and lethal control, such resources are unaffordable or unavailable to subsistence farmers. Instead, they utilised passive methods to deter wildlife (e.g. chasing, guarding fields). The loss of household food to depredation coupled with adverse environmental factors may compromise the food security of poor households. Although tensions between local human communities and conservation authorities exist, the positive attitudes and opinions of subsistence and commercial farmers towards biodiversity, as well as the reported alacrity of conservation authorities for community conservation, may provide the basis for future discussions on joint wildlife management. In the absence of such collaborations, wildlife will continue to experience conflict in farmed areas, or they might adapt by modifying their behaviour, as demonstrated in one wild dog pack. / LG2017

This thesis uses the substainable rural livelihoods framework to investigate the agricultural livelihoods of the Cata community of the Eastern Cape. The Cata community is a deeply rural community located on the southern slopes of the Amatole Mountains. Traditional crop production used to be the major source of income for the households in this community. Of late there has been a lesser reliance on production of food by many households. Many are no longer ploughing their fields or their homestead gardens. People from this community are now spending most of their income on purchasing basic food items that they use to produce themselves, such as vegetables. The researcher then decided to study the contemporary livelihood of this rural community so as to identify the reasons why people in Cata are no longer ploughing their fields and gardens. This study found that, rural people in the community are faced with severe obstacles to agricultural production and this has led them to abandon agriculture as a major means of household support. These obstacles include high cost of production inputs, lack of fencing and lack of mechanization tractors and implements. In order to revitalize crop production the people want to be assisted with production inputs, tractor subsides, consistent water supply and fencing of the fields. Finally, the study makes recommendations for the revitalization of crop production in the Cata.

Thesis (MPA.) -- University of Limpopo, 2017 / Despite the attempt by the South African government to transfer farms to black ownership, black farmers still remain poor and have to compete without technical skills. The majority of the previously disadvantaged farmers part of mostly practice subsistence agriculture characterised by low production and lack of market. The question that still remains to be answered is whether these subsistence farmers will ever grow to be commercial farmers, and white farmers continue dominating commercial farming. This prompted the researcher to engage in this study that will identify the challenges that make emerging farmers not to succeed as they should. The aim of this study is to investigate the challenges faced by black emerging farmers in the transition from subsistence to commercial farming in Ba-Phalaborwa Municipality and the role played by the Limpopo Department of Agriculture and Rural Development in ensuring that such transits take place. Data used in this study collected from 50 emerging farmers from the five villages in Ba-Phalaborwa and eight (8) extension officers from different sections in the department of Agriculture and Rural development in Ba-Phalaborwa Municipality. The researcher used mixed research design, questionnaires and semi-structured interviews to achieve the intended objectives. The finding shows that the majority of emerging farmers receive support to run their farm activities from the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development mostly in the form of extension services. The study further indicated that emerging farmers are aware of the role being played by the Department of Agriculture, and Rural Development although they are not satisfied with the support the Department is giving them and they believe that if the departments can further support them, they can improve their productions. The study established that emerging farmers have been facing several challenges, including lack of property right or title deed, insufficient farm size, shortage of money, inadequate extension services, inadequate or damaged infrastructure, and climate change, risk on production, lack of market, and lack of information, stock theft, erratic rainfall is a major challenge, lack of access to electricity, lack of access to telephone, not receiving advices on farming activities, not receiving advices on marketing of products, bookkeeping and technology. The emerging farmers’ challenges are worsened by the fact that farmers who are facing droughts are not able to get immediate funding to engage in farming activities. Despite these challenges emerging farmers want to continue with farming and in the next five years they want to see themselves in commercial farming. The concerned government departments should be encouraged to provide farm inputs and equipment like tractors, fertilisers, improved seeds, irrigation system and other types of farm inputs to emerging farmers to empower them to move from subsistence to commercial. The government departments and extension officers should be encouraged to provide skills to emerging farmers like, soil cultivation, irrigation, controlling of weed, packaging, livestock health care, hygiene, breeding and nutrition, recording skills and maintenance of farm equipment to empower emerging farmers to move from subsistence to commercial. Furthermore, policy makers should be encouraged to develop alternative strategies that will motivate emerging farmers to overcome challenges they are facing like lack of property rights of title deeds, insufficient farm sizes, climate change and shortage of money

The broad objective of the study was poverty alleviation through the development of subsistence harvesters at Ngqushwa Municipality. The research objectives were to explore - ways of advancing from being subsistence level producers, opportunities available to these harvesters, if they, (subsistence harvesters), want to be commercialized and what actions do they need to take to become successful businesses. The study was conducted in the the coastal area of Ngqushwa Municipality. The researcher conducted face-to-face interviews with 2 key informants. The respondents provided information on the marine species harvested by the subsistence harvesters of the Ngqushwa Municipality and the type of tools they use for harvesting. They mentioned how subsistence harvesters could advance from subsistence level to producers, about opportunities available to these harvesters, and what actions they need to take if they want to become successful businesses. The key informants also informed the researcher that subsistence harvesters are now classified as Small Scale Fisheries and informed about villages that engage in subsistence harvesting within the Ngqushwa Municipality area. 15 subsistence harvesters were randomly sampled in Polar Park, Qolweni, Gcinisa and Wesley villages which fall under the Ngqushwa Municipality. These harvesters shared their willingness to move from subsistence to commercial fisheries. The use of storytelling interviews (4 subsistence), was also used by the researcher to get more information about their experiences and challenges. The survey was conducted over 7 days. One day in June, 2016 and 6 days in September, 2016. The total number of people interviewed was 21, made up of 2 key informants, 15 subsistence and 4 story telling interviews. The results showed that the community of subsistence harvesters is very discontented because they do not benefit from the sea and the marine resources although they live near the ocean. They also believe that in 22 years of democracy there is no way forward from the government. They are irate as they have witnessed the top down management style from the government. The current subsistence harvesters have little or no formal school education, (23% with no formal schooling at all, 23% with high school education between grades 8 - 12). Without the educational and skills programs from the government the subsistence harvesters will not be able to grow and create further employment opportunities for the rest of the community of Ngqushwa Municipality. The following recommendations have suggested that co-management must come from the community. It must not be people from parliament who do not feel the pain the communities are suffering. The top down approach should stop and a bottom up approach should be implemented, which will allow decisions to be made by the communities involved in harvesting. The government only needs to monitor. They (Government), have good policies, but are they are not monitored. The harvesters need training from the government. There is a need for the formulation of a development forum with learned people, churches, community leaders, young people, women, disabled, and the fishing community all represented. There is also need of support in terms of equipment, boats and education. The government needs to conduct training on fisheries and business management and provide financial support and assistance with business plans.

Thesis (MDev.) -- University of Limpopo, 2014 / Smallholder subsistence agriculture is regarded as an approach that can be adopted by poor rural households to meet their food and nutritional requirements. The practice of smallholder subsistence agriculture is a basis upon which poor households can enhance their household food security through increased incomes and food supply, ultimately generating extra income for other household needs. The present study discusses and analyses the importance of smallholder subsistence agriculture as an effective method easily available to households residing in rural areas to access food and incomes for household purposes. Hence, the study seeks to explore and analyses the role of smallholder subsistence agriculture in contributing to household food security in rural areas. Both primary and secondary data have been used to analyze the factors for the purpose of the study. The primary data were collected through a designed survey questionnaire administered to sampled smallholder subsistence farmers in the study area. This study used purposive sampling technique, through a transect walk, to draw households involved in smallholder subsistence agriculture in Maroteng Village. From the total population in the study area, only 100 households were selected for the purposes of the study. Both descriptive and qualitative techniques were used to analyze salient variables of the practice in order to give an insight of the important role the sector can play in addressing poverty, enhancing incomes and creating employment, consequently contributing to household food security in rural areas. The study shows that the participation on smallholder subsistence farming by households in rural areas could have positive impact on food security situations.

Thesis (M.A. Admin. (Development)) -- University of Limpopo, 2014. / Smallholder subsistence agriculture is regarded as an approach that can be adopted by poor rural households to meet their food and nutritional requirements. The practice of smallholder subsistence agriculture is a basis upon which poor households can enhance their household food security through increased incomes and food supply, ultimately generating extra income for other household needs. The present study discusses and analyses the importance of smallholder subsistence agriculture as an effective method easily available to households residing in rural areas to access food and incomes for household purposes. Hence, the study seeks to explore and analyses the role of smallholder subsistence agriculture in contributing to household food security in rural areas. Both primary and secondary data have been used to analyze the factors for the purpose of the study. The primary data were collected through a designed survey questionnaire administered to sampled smallholder subsistence farmers in the study area. This study used purposive sampling technique, through a transect walk, to draw households involved in smallholder subsistence agriculture in Maroteng Village. From the total population in the study area, only 100 households were selected for the purposes of the study. Both descriptive and qualitative techniques were used to analyze salient variables of the practice in order to give an insight of the important role the sector can play in addressing poverty, enhancing incomes and creating employment, consequently contributing to household food security in rural areas. The study shows that the participation on smallholder subsistence farming by households in rural areas could have positive impact on food security situations.

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Technology: Governance and Economic Development, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa. 2015. / South African rural areas are amongst the poorest in the world, as there is still a wide gap in terms of development with their urban neighbours. With an estimated 6.4 million South Africans falling below the national poverty line in 2010, KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) remains the province with the highest number of poor people. The majority of rural dwellers in South Africa and KZN rely on subsistence farming, while others depend on government grants or family members living and working in urban areas to sustain a living. However, the income received is often insufficient to cater for their daily needs. In consonance with the high prevalence of poverty and the stagnation of subsistence farming, this study aims to examine the role of water supply in rural agricultural development in the Ward 19 area of Mtubatuba Municipality, which is situated along the north eastern region of KZN. To accomplish this aim, a mixed research approach with elements of qualitative (interviews) and quantitative (questionnaire) research techniques was used to obtain relevant information. A total of 50 participants took part in this study, all of whom were subsistence farmers in Ward 19 of Mtubatuba Municipality in KwaZulu-Natal. Furthermore, interviews were conducted with three senior officials from the regional office of the Department of Water Affairs in Durban; three staff members from the Mtubatuba Municipality; two individuals from Ward 19; two senior staff members from the Department of Agriculture, Environmental Affairs and Rural Development in Mtubatuba; as well as two senior staff members from Umkanyakude water services provider in Mtubatuba. The study revealed that water shortages have adversely undermined the development and growth of subsistence farming in this poor community. Furthermore, the difficulties experienced by the marginalised people of Ward 19 are typical of many rural areas which have not fully benefitted from transformation in a post-apartheid South Africa. In order to address the defunct subsistence iii farming in this community, the study proposed a well-tailored and effective water resource management approach with the intention of transforming subsistence farming into commercial farming, thus improving the standard of living and reducing poverty to a reasonable level. Furthermore, in recognition that the area under study is dominated by women, the study emphasised the imperativeness of empowering the women of the community as a strategy underpinning rural development.