A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirement of the degree of Master of Arts in Sociology (Coursework and Research) JOHANNESBURG / The advent of the Fast Track Land Reform Programme influenced a major shift of small scale farmers from subsistence cereal cropping to the commercial growing of tobacco. Smallholder tobacco farmers enjoyed economic prosperity in the tobacco farming sector but that prosperity was short lived. Smallholder farmers face a lot of marketing, production and policy problems within the tobacco farming industry and these problems are increasingly rendering them unproductive. Most smallholder tobacco farmers are entrapped in a ‘vulnerability context’ in which they are exposed to food and income insecurity owing to the problems which they face. However, despite the challenges which they face, smallholder tobacco farmers are largely resilient; they formulate and reformulate their livelihoods on a daily basis in endeavours to cushion themselves against the overwhelming odds. It was against this background that this qualitative study sought to explore the adaptive strategies that are pursued by smallholder tobacco farmers in response to the effects posed by tobacco mono-cropping. This study also sought to examine the factors that influenced the choice of the adaptive strategies that were pursued by those farmers as well as the factors that constrained their adaptive capacity. To meet the aims of this study, a purely qualitative methodology was adopted in which unstructured interviews and focus group discussions with smallholder farmers who were purposively selected were conducted in Hurungwe district. The study found out that smallholder tobacco farmers were highly adaptive and agricultural intensification, migration, and micro-enterprise activities were found out to be the main activities that were pursued by those farmers. The study also found out gender, income levels, educational levels, infrastructure and equipment ownership as the main factors that either determined or constrained the adaptive capacity of those farmers. Based on key findings, the researcher recommended the government and non-governmental organisations to enhance rural people’s education and credit facilities access, ensure infrastructural development in rural areas and encourage peer to peer sharing of vocational skills. / MT2017

The Rural Non-Farm Economy (RNFE) is a concept that has gained significance quite recently. Its significance has been prompted by the realisation that agriculture alone cannot sustain the poor subsistence farmers in Zimbabwe. This realisation comes amid the growing concern over increased hunger and poverty in the country‟s rural areas due to a decline in agricultural production. Drawing on the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) this study postulates that RNFE is a livelihood strategy that can address rural poverty and social transformation in Zimbabwe. Such an approach to rural development can take up the slack and provide the much needed income for the rural communities to survive. However, RNFE has not yet been used as a social mechanism for poverty alleviation in Zimbabwe. Therefore, this study was undertaken with the objective of investigating the prospects and challenges of the RNFE in Seke District. Although the study is focusing on Zimbabwe, the study may also address the problem of rural development in other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. The study revealed that only a few household heads in Sekewere engaged in both traditional and non-traditional activities. However, the study noted that the household heads encountered many challenges which include; poor market, low income obtained, shortage of inputs, no access to credit and no support from government or other development agencies.Overall, it was recognised that the household heads engaged in RNFE were not realizing the full benefits of RNFE. Therefore, in order to promote the growth of RNFE and make it more productive, the study posits the following key points to be take into consideration by the various stakeholders in rural development; agricultural development, infrastructural development, rural town development, improving access to financial services, facilitating rural-urban linkages and the implementation of development projects aimed at promoting self-employment in the non-farm sector.

Energy poverty is a concept that has gained significance quite recently. Its significance has been prompted by the realization that without sustainable modern energy alternatives for the rural poor, prospects for rural transformation remains low. The recognition of modern energy as one of the missing link in rural transformation comes amid the growing concern about the negative effects of relying on traditional energy services and the increasing forecasts that most developing countries are likely to miss their MDG targets by 2015. Drawing on the Modernization and the Sustainable Development Approach, this study concluded that improving the quantity and quality of energy services consumed by the rural poor can counteract rural underdevelopment and enhance rural social and economic transformation in Dewedzo. The study confirmed that energy poor households are prone to various social, economic and environmental detriments such as poor health, hunger, malnutrition, poor education and missed socio economic opportunities. By addressing rural people‟s energy needs, more nexus can be injected into rural productivity and the economic social outputs of this process can in turn increase the pace at which MDGs can be achieved.

The problem this research seeks to address is about the ineffectiveness of NGOs’ strategies implemented in the rural areas of Binga District in Zimbabwe. The research has been basically influenced by personal concerns which I believe have influenced the selection of the research problem. My main concern is the deepening of poverty in Binga District. Lack of infrastructure like roads, shortage of schools leading to high illiteracy levels, shortage of clinics and hospitals, lack of clean water, high unemployment levels are the indicators of poverty in Binga. Country wide, the district is regarded as one of the poorest districts. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the poverty alleviation strategies implemented by NGOs in the rural areas of Zimbabwe specifically in Binga. Today there are more than fifteen NGOs that operate in Binga and they specialise in different areas ranging from food distribution, education, agriculture, conservation and advocacy. What matters most is that despite the number of NGOs operating in Binga, poverty is still intensifying and widening. Through the research, it was found that most NGOs’ strategies in Binga focus on relief than developmental aid. Also when addressing poverty, NGOs use the trickle down approach than the bottom up approach. Moreover, the strategies implemented in Binga do not address the needs of the poor. The political instability in Zimbabwe is also believed to be a serious stumbling block to the operation of NGOs in Binga and the rest of the country. Finally, the research recommends NGOs to use the participatory approach as well as the sustainable livelihoods approach in dealing with poverty. Again, NGOs need to monitor and evaluate their projects because most of their projects are not monitored and evaluated properly. Above all the NGOs’ strategies for alleviating poverty need to be reviewed.

This research study explored livelihood strategies that female headed households adopt in Magaso village of Mutoko district in Zimbabwe. The study intended to achieve the following objectives: (i) examine the existing livelihood strategies of female headed households (ii) explore the various challenges faced by female headed households and (iii) establish the support mechanisms in place for female headed households to cope with life challenges .The literature reviewed in the study was drawn from several researchers, and the study was shaped by the strengths perspectives and the liberal feminism perspective. The study was qualitative in nature and used interviews to collect data from fifteen (15) female headed households. The data collection process used an interview guide. The research employed a qualitative research design in the form of a case study cum a phenomenological study design. Data was analysed qualitatively using the content thematic data analysis which used interpretive approaches and presentation is textual rather than statistical. The study findings were the following: engaging in subsistence farming was found to be the main livelihood activity of the female heads; engaging in home gardens; exchanging labour for food; involvement in business; reliance on temporary employment from different agencies; reliance on handouts from government and other bodies; and household heads sanctioning child labour that compromises school attendance. Moreover, these female heads faced numerous difficulties ranging from emotional, social to financial problems that resulted in worsening the condition of women, and hence validating feminization of poverty among them. Several support mechanisms were discovered to be available for the female heads but they fail to produce to fruitful results to the lives of the female heads. The study made the following recommendations: mainstreaming gender education from childhood stage; efforts aimed at job creation; financial empowerment through setting up of micro schemes for rural women amongst; seeking the services of agricultural extension services to the female head farmers; improving the social services delivery in Zimbabwe equitably across genders and strengthening informal strategies to improve women‘s social capital. Lastly, the study concluded that little is being done in terms of policy formulation to make the support structures responsive to the female headed households especially in rural areas, hence the need for sustainable development through empowerment.

Land reforms are back on the development agenda. Different types of land reforms have been adopted globally in recent years, but by far the most controversial and most radical has been the fast track land reform pursued by the Government of Zimbabwe from 2000. There is general scholarly agreement that the fast track process has been accompanied by various socio-economic and political challenges, including an increase in levels of food insecurity. This thesis examines fast track reform in specific relation to the livelihoods of smallholder households and household food security amongst land beneficiaries. It argues that the problem of food insecurity in Zimbabwe is a complex social, political and economic issue, which cannot be simplistically reduced to the failures of fast track. Understanding household food insecurity post-2000 needs to go beyond the notion that the nation‟s food security hinges on overall levels of production alone. In particular, livelihoods and food security need to be conceptualised at community and household levels. Therefore, while addressing the broad macro-level analysis and discourse around the process of fast track, the study also adopts a micro-level analysis to look at the varied impact of fast track on the actual beneficiaries. The research focuses on small-scale beneficiaries in the Goromonzi District of Zimbabwe and, through the use of the sustainable livelihoods framework, looks at how their local contexts have been influenced by the wider socio-economic and political processes, and how beneficiaries have sought ways of coping with the challenges they face.

Development is a critical aspect of individuals, groups, communities or nations. Community development is even more critical aspect of development as it purportedly leads to self reliance. Huge amounts of funds, time, and resources, just but to mention a few have been continuously channeled towards communities over time in a bid to facilitate community development. Unfortunately, results of such actions and interventions by NGOs, governments and a host of development agencies have so far largely proved elusive. Contrary to NGO expectations and popular opinion, target communities continuously demand, request and expect increased direct support from development agencies. Solving acute community problems and challenges, the focus of most NGO development interventions has been less successful. Target problems have largely graduated and turned to chronic levels. All this is unfortunately worsening against the background of increased donor and NGO support. Deteriorating and widening community challenges are also taking place against general claims by NGOs to the application of community development ideals in communities as a successful development alternative. Contrastingly, rather than being self reliant, communities have become more dependent on donors. In addition, NGO target communities continue to grapple with short-lived changes, limited participation by the majority, reversal of past successes and dwindling self representation and reliance. Inequalities have widened. This is to the detriment of ongoing NGO claims and efforts at promoting community development. Development is a critical aspect of individuals, groups, communities or nations. Community development is even more critical aspect of development as it purportedlyleads to self reliance. Huge amounts of funds, time, and resources, just but to mention a few have been continuously channeled towards communities over time in a bid to facilitate community development. Unfortunately, results of such actions and interventions by NGOs, governments and a host of development agencies have so far largely proved elusive. Contrary to NGO expectations and popular opinion, target communities continuously demand, request and expect increased direct support from development agencies. Solving acute community problems and challenges, the focus of most NGO development interventions has been less successful. Target problems have largely graduated and turned to chronic levels. All this is unfortunately worsening against the background of increased donor and NGO support. Deteriorating and widening community challenges are also taking place against general claims by NGOs to the application of community development ideals in communities as a successful development alternative. Contrastingly, rather than being self reliant, communities have become more dependent on donors.

This thesis explores human-wildlife interactions under community managed game parks. The thesis consists of an introductory chapter, study location chapter and four self-contained studies based on different samples from created clusters surrounding Nyatana Game Park, which make up the rest of the thesis chapters. Chapter one presents an introductory overview of wildlife management in Zimbabwe, specifically looking at human-wildlife interactions under CAMPFIRE projects, welfare dynamics and conservation implications for the surrounding communities who share boundaries with community-managed game parks. The chapter concludes by highlighting the challenges facing community-based wildlife conservation in Zimbabwe as well as the key concepts that will be the subject of the rest of the thesis. Chapter two presents the study location; it highlights the road map to the study area, starting with the provincial location, and indicates the specific districts from which respondents were selected. A brief agro-ecological summary of the study area is also presented; it looks specifically at climate, vegetation and a demographic data of the study area. Chapter three: Can game parks be trusted as livelihood sources? To answer this topical question, Chapter three explores livelihood adaptation strategies for households who share boundaries with Nyatana Game Park. Most of the community managed game parks, under CAMPFIRE principles in Zimbabwe, were established with the primary objective of generating revenue for the surrounding communities; this was done in the hope of using positive returns from game farming to promote the conservation of wildlife. Has this materialised in practice? Descriptive results from this study seem to suggest otherwise, where mixed farming and gold panning were the major livelihood adaptation choices reported by most households. The revenue from game farming was reported to be too low and inconsistent, to such an extent that the majority of the community regarded it as risky and unreliable. A multinomial logistic regression model for correlates of adaptation choices indicated that access to credit, markets, and extension may be some of the current institutional constraints inhibiting households from accessing off-farm sources for their livelihoods. In addition, household size, gender and age may enhance the adaptive capacity of households to move out of risky crop faming into other off-farm portfolio diversifications. The study, therefore, suggests that game parks, according to the evidence uncovered by the study, may not be trusted as a reliable and sustainable livelihood source. If local communities who share boundaries with game parks do not view them as reliable and sustainable livelihood sources, as concluded in Chapter three, how can they (local communities) be trusted to conserve them? To assess their perceptions of game parks, Chapter four presents a multinomial logistic regression model for perceptions of society on game parks using the African elephant as a typical example. The results suggest that Problem Animal Control (PAC) perceptions, livestock predation and issues of low and poor revenue distribution may be some of the critical perceptions capable of influencing surrounding communities to negatively participate in the conservation of wildlife. The results further suggest that using wildlife proceeds to finance observable local common pool infrastructure may positively influence the surrounding communities to conserve wildlife. The chief conclusion regarding game parks, therefore, was that the surrounding communities were in favour of the obliteration pathway, although minimal conservation perceptions were also available. Given the negative conclusions regarding game parks, as suggested in Chapters three and four, citizens would then wonder if any meaningful hope for community managed game parks exists. Chapter five probes the buffer zone livelihood link under community managed game parks, using evidence from the Nyatana Game Park. The binary logistic regression model results, for buffer zone participation and resource extraction combinations by surrounding communities, suggest that resource extraction may be market driven rather than focussing on domestic consumption. The study therefore concludes that the buffer zone livelihood link as currently practiced, though potential, may fail to address the livelihood expectations of the sub-district producer communities. The study therefore calls for extreme caution whenever the buffer zone livelihood link is considered, because several institutional and design conflicts exist within this dynamic. In Chapter six, the study further probed the buffer zone income dynamics for the sub-district producer community. The results of descriptive statistics suggest that the contribution of buffer zone activities to household income may be significant with a positive correlation to household agricultural income for communities who reside inside or close to the park (primary sub-district producer community). Using the Gini decomposition approach and Lorenz curves, the study concluded that a buffer zone income may be capable of contributing to more equally distributed incomes for rural communities who share boundaries with game parks. With respect to the correlates of household income, the results suggest that household size and age may negatively influence income from buffer zone activities, while gender may have a positive effect. This was also true for education and Livestock Units (LUs) with respect to income from self employment; the former positively and the latter negatively related. The results further suggest that land size may also be positively significant in order to explain income from agriculture as well as total income. With regard to the distance from the buffer zone, the results suggest a negative influence with respect to the buffer zone, agriculture and total income. The implied message therefore suggests that buffer zones may provide active livelihood sources which are capable of financing rural household agriculture. The income equalizing effect which is portrayed may also further imply that, if correctly targeted and promoted, a buffer zone income could possibly address the current income inequality which is generic in rural areas. However, this potential may not be realized due to the current buffer zone design status (created for local secondary use as opposed to commercial primary use), restrictive policies and poor institutional support. With this dilemma facing community managed game parks (threats as summarised in Chapters three and four amid the potential hope summarized in Chapters five and six), Chapter 7 concludes the study by suggesting that the human-wildlife interaction model, though currently theoretical, may have significant practical potential in addressing the livelihoods of the surrounding communities as well as promoting the conservation of wildlife. This could be possible if available challenges that range from low revenue, insecure property rights, high human-elephant conflict and institutional design conflict for buffer zone utilization are corrected by means of the free market system. This would allow market forces to deliver on the expectations of the ―human-wildlife interactions model‖ – sustainable livelihoods for the former and intergenerational conservation for the latter.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The environmental education (EE)-sustainable development (SD) nexus has generated much research and debate at local, national and global levels (Fien, 1993). Although the term EE is quite old, dating back to 1948 in Paris (Palmer, 1998), during the last three decades, it has regained global currency due to numerous environmental challenges that are confronting our planet Earth, including: climate change, land degradation, desertification, and de-forestation, pollution and ozone depletion. The Rio Earth Summit of 1992 generated a new zeal in the provision of EE throughout the world. Since then, many countries have adopted it as a remedial strategy to address these environmental challenges. In Zimbabwe, EE dates back to 1954 during the colonial era when it was provided in the form of conservation education among farmers and in schools and colleges (Chikunda, 2007). The Natural Resources Board (NRB), a department in the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture (which was established in 1941) played a key role in both research and the dissemination of EE (Whitlow, 1988). However, throughout the colonial era and up to the end of the millennium, the country did not have a written EE policy document. Consequently, various government departments and organisations, which provided EE, did so individually. However, this fragmented approach proved to be ineffective and had to be abandoned through the promulgation of the Environmental Management Act (Chapter 20:27) of 2002. This development led to the establishment of an environmental management agency (EMA), which harmonised the provision of EE at local and national levels. This study based on information that was collected between 2011 and 2014, examines Zimbabwe‟s EE programme and its implications for sustainable development. It employed a mixed methods research design which enabled the researcher to employ both qualitative and quantitative approaches in data collection, interpretation and analysis. Derived from the pragmatic school of thought, this research design allows researchers to triangulate with different methods without provoking epistemological conflicts from other schools of thought. The study shows that nearly 84% of the EE in the country is provided by the formal education sector (which includes schools, colleges and universities) while the remaining 16% is derived from non-formal and informal education sources such as: EMA, some government ministries and departments, and several non-governmental organisations (NGOs). However, the bulk of the EE provided in Zimbabwe is biophysical in nature and is geared at transmitting facts about rather than for the environment (Fien, 1993; Chikunda, 2007 and Mapira, 2012a). Consequently, it does not instil a sense of environmental stewardship among ordinary citizens as reflected by increasing cases of environmental crimes including: land degradation, veldt fire outbreaks, deforestation, and the poaching of elephants, rhinos, and other wildlife resources. Furthermore, most people lack a deep knowledge of basic concepts such as EE, SD and ESD, indicating the weakness of the country‟s EE efforts. The study makes several recommendations for the improvement of the country‟s EE programme, including: more funding of EMA and its partners so that they can execute their mandate more efficiently, and revising school and college curricula with a view to infusing EE in courses and syllabi. Other recommendations are that EE should be made compulsory in all formal educational institutions while the state should take environmental issues more seriously than it has done in the past. For example, top government officials should refrain from the poaching of endangered wildlife resources like elephants and rhinos if their country‟s EE policies have to be taken seriously at the grass roots level. Stiffer penalties should be meted out to those found guilty by courts of law while ordinary citizens need more educational campaigns if they have to develop environmental sensitivity and a sense of stewardship, which are necessary ingredients for the success of any country‟s EE programme. Furthermore, alternatives of making a living should be created for villagers and peasants so that they do not have to damage their environment in order to survive. Finally, this study argues that if all the above challenges are fully addressed, Zimbabwe‟s EE programme can achieve its goals in the long run.

In today‘s changing demographic, economic, political and environmental context the livelihood strategies developed by the rapidly growing older population deserve particular attention. Lack of support by the state coupled with economic crises and decreasing family availability has meant that older people are increasingly expected to find their own means of support into old age, develop their own strategies and rely on their own resources. Heterogeneity in old age means that while some older people are amongst the most vulnerable and socially down and out, others have accumulated resources that enable them to implement diverse and enterprising livelihood strategies to maintain their wellbeing in old age. This study uses an explorative approach in its quest to understand the various livelihood strategies of the elderly. In-depth interviews and life histories have been utilized as data collection instruments. In addition to this inductive and qualitative research approach, the dissertation uses the sustainable livelihoods framework to examine the different kinds of livelihood strategies employed by the elderly in Mubaira to stave off poverty in old age in the absence of social security systems. A comparative analysis with other regional countries reveals that old age pensions have been able to reduce poverty at old age significantly. By engaging in different livelihood activities, in the absence of old age pensions, the elderly in Mubaira community in Zimbabwe have been able to make a living. Agriculture is the dominant activity the aged people engage in as they try to avert food insecurity. Besides agriculture, aged people diversify their livelihoods through self employments that add income value to their households. The impact of cash and non-cash remittances has seen aged people being able to buy basic goods and a few essentials. Although the state has been dysfunctional, civil society has stepped in to address the livelihood challenges faced by the aged population and in v particular to provide an alternative solution to the needs of the elderly people within the sustainable livelihoods framework which remains one of the most important models for the analysis of rural livelihoods. Through the livelihoods approach‘s vulnerability approach the study also analyses the various impacts affecting the attainment of sustainable livelihood outcomes. Through the utilization of the livelihoods framework in addition to the qualitative research methodology as indicated above, the study found that livelihood activities of the aged require a stock of capital assets which include natural, human, physical, social and financial capital. The life histories of the aged in Mubaira revealed that through the years the aged did accumulate various assets that assist them even now. As the life course perspective suggests events in earlier life do have a bearing on later life, access to a range of capital assets helped old aged people in Mubaira to fully engage in livelihood strategies that ensured their survival and escape from poverty.