Since 2002, the Division for Electricity at Uppsala University has been running the Lysekil project. The project is an attempt to construct and evaluate a technology for extracting electrical energy from the motion of ocean waves. The idea is to let this up-and-down motion drive a linear generator. A buoy moves thus in the waves, and is connected through a line to the generator at the sea floor. Three such wave energy converters, L1, L2, and L3, and a marine substation have been deployed in the ocean southwest of Lysekil on the Swedish west coast, at the Lysekil research site. Measuring equipment has also been deployed, together with a number of buoys for studying environmental impact. A measuring station has been installed on the nearby island of Hermanö, and an observation tower has been built on the islet of Klammerskär, south of the research site. This licentiate thesis describes the author's work on studying wave buoy motion and is based on five scientific papers, covering mainly two areas. Firstly, changes in water levels, and thereby changes in the equilibrium point for the buoy and generator, have been related to the ability of L1 to absorb energy. The results indicate that there is a correlation between water levels and energy absorption for L1 for the studied time period. When the water level deviates from average, the absorption values decrease. This is not unexpected, since the linear generator has a finite stroke. The effect is however noticeable primarily for water level deviations of more than 25 cm, and is only visible for those cases where either wave height or water level deviation is large. Secondly, the above mentioned observation tower has been designed and built. The tower is equipped with a network camera covering the research site, a wireless communication system and an energy system. The first acquired images of the buoy connected to L1, taken during the summer of 2008, have been analyzed, and buoy motion data has been extracted. The observation system has worked well, and the data on buoy motion (vertical motion in the range of +/-0.5 m correlates fairly well to measurements of significant wave height for the period (Hm0=0.82 m). A comparison with voltage data from the generator also indicates that the system has captured the dominating buoy motion. However, the system suffers from poor temporal resolution (about one image per second), and has not yet been synchronized with the other measurement systems at the site. Addressing these two problems is of high priority in the future.

The aim of this thesis is to illustrate whether the heat demand in district heating systems can be seen as a resource that enables efficient energy utilization, how this can be achieved and to discuss consequences of this assumption. Based on the answers to posed research questions and on the studies included in this thesis, it is concluded that the hypothesis “A common system approach for energy supply and heat demand will show climate and economic efficient solutions” is true. In cold-climate countries, energy for heating of buildings is essential and heating options that interplay with the power system through electricity use or generation have potential for efficiency improvements. In Sweden, district heating is used extensively, especially in large buildings but to a growing extent also for small houses. Some industrial heat loads and absorption cooling can complement space heating demand so that the production resources may be more evenly utilised during the seasons of the year. Rising electricity prices in recent years cause problems for the extensive use of electric heating in Sweden and further switching to district heating should be a possible option. To be economically favourable, district-heating systems require a certain heat load density. New low-energy houses and energy-efficiency measures in existing buildings decrease the heat demand in buildings and, thus, in district heating systems. Optimisation models have been used in several studies of large, complex energy systems. Such models allow scenarios with changing policy instruments and changed consumer behaviour to be analysed. Energy efficiency measures as well as good conditions for efficient electricity generation, which can replace old, inefficient plants, are needed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from the energy sector. Results when having a European energy perspective to studies of changes in Sweden differ from when having for example a Swedish energy system perspective The effects on global carbon dioxide emissions, when studying combined heat and power electricity generation in Sweden, are greater than it is on local emissions. / Eftersom höjda elpriser under senare år orsakar problem för den stora användningen av elvärme, kommer ytterligare konvertering till fjärrvärme att vara ett möjligt alternativ. För att vara ekonomiskt fördelaktigt kräver fjärrvärme en viss värmetäthet. Nya lågenergihus och energieffektiviseringsåtgärder i befintliga byggnader minskar värmebehovet i byggnaderna och då även i fjärrvärmesystemen.Syftet med denna avhandling är att visa om värmebehovet i fjärrvärmesystem kan betraktas som en resurs som möjliggör ett effektivt energiutnyttjande, hur detta i så fall kan uppnås och att diskutera följderna av att göra ett sådant antagande. Baserat på svaren på ställda forskningsfrågor och studier som genomförts har hypotesen som lyder; En gemensam systemsyn för både tillförsel och användning av energi för uppvärmningsändamål leder till ekonomiskt såväl som ur klimatsynpunkt effektiva lösningar, visat sig stämma. I länder med kallt klimat är energi för uppvärmning av byggnader viktigt och uppvärmningsalternativ som samverkar med elsystemet genom elanvändning eller elproduktion har potential för effektivitetsförbättringar. I Sverige är fjärrvärmeanvändningen utbredd, speciellt i större byggnader men användningen ökar också i småhus. Vissa industriella värmelaster och absorptionskyla kan fungera som komplement till andra värmebehov i fjärrvärmesystem så att produktionsresurser kan användas mer jämnt fördelat över året. Optimeringsmodeller har använts i flera studier för stora, komplexa energisystem. I dessa kan scenarier med olika styrmedel och förändrad energianvändning analyseras. Nya användningsområden för spillvärme, som att använda värme till absorptionskyla och att växla från olja och el till fjärrvärme i industriella processer kan också studeras. Energieffektiviseringsåtgärder såväl som bra förutsättningar för effektiv elproduktion, som kan ersätta gamla ineffektiva anläggningar behövs för att minska koldioxidutsläppen från energisektorn. Resultaten då ett europeiskt energisystemperspektiv använts, för att studera förändringar i Sverige, skiljer sig från när endast ett svenskt systemperspektiv använts. Påverkan på globala koldioxidutsläpp, då elproduktion från kraftvärme i Sverige studeras, är större än vad påverkan på lokala utsläpp är.

The work presented in this thesis covers the topic of deployment for mobile robot teams. By connecting robots in teams they can perform a better job than each individual is capable of. It also gives redundancy, increases robustness, provides scalability, and increases efficiency. Multi-robot Information Fusion also results in a broader perspective for decision making. This thesis focuses on methods for estimating formation and trajectories and how these can be used for deployment of a robot team. The problems covered discuss what impact trajectories and formation have on the total uncertainty when exploring unknown areas. The deployment problem is approached using a centralized Kalman filter, for investigation of how team formation affects error propagation. Trajectory estimation is done using a smoother, where all information is used not only to estimate the trajectory of each robot, but also to align trajectories from different robots. Both simulation and experimental results are presented in the appended papers. It is shown that sensor placements can substantially affect uncertainty during deployment. When deploying a robot team the formation can be used as a tool for balancing error propagation among the robot states. A robust algorithm for associating rendezvous observations to align robot trajectories is also presented. Trajectory alignment is used as an efficient and cost-effective method for joining mapping information within robot teams. When working with robot teams, sensor placement and formation should be considered to obtain the maximum from the system. It is also of great value to mix robots with different characteristics since it is shown that using sensor fusion the robots can inherit each other’s characteristics if sensors are used correctly. Information sharing requires modularity and general models, which consumecomputational resources. Over time computer resources will become cheaper, allowing for distribution, and each robot will become more self-contained. Together with increased wireless bandwidth this will enable larger numbers of robots to cooperate.

Computational evidence of the operative usefulness of a new system is crucial in large system development processes concerning billions of euros or dollars. Although it is obvious that the human often is the most important and critical component of many systems, it has often been hard for Human Factors researchers to express human aspects in a computational and strict way. The thesis describes, through data based statistical modeling, how the concepts or constructs of sensor effectiveness, usability of information, mental workload, situation awareness and teamwork relates to each other and to the operative performance in a fourship of fighter pilots. Through the use of structural equation modeling, ad modum LISREL, a statistical model that describes how the operators’ functional state mediates the effects between technical system oriented variables, was developed. The constructs used in the modeling process have received widespread scientific and operational attention. They have also been identified as multi-dimensional. Many different ways of measuring them have been developed in the scientific community, and the thesis focuses on the next step, i.e. how do these higher order constructs relate to each other in something as multi-dimensional as human activity in real situations? A comprehensive human factors related dataset was collected in a large simulation based acquisition study that examined the requirements and properties of aircraft radar systems. The dataset contains 308 simulated engagements with data from four pilots each, i.e. 1232 cases in a database with 24 variables, generated by 37 pilots. The collected data and the resulting models thus summarizes more than 700 hours of experienced pilots’ complex behavior in an operationally valid environment, and in a way that is of theoretical interest as well as of importance in system development processes. The data thus comes from a real world study of complex processes in a dynamic context, although from a simulator. The thesis is a case example of modern ecologically valid experimental psychology. The data collection does not represent a classical experimental setup, but instead demonstrates methodological needs and considerations for human factors practitioners when working in system development studies. The fact that parts of the used data are classified has not affected the models and scientific conclusions, although the practical findings have been partly circumscribed in the presentation. As a result of the statistical modeling effort, a structural equation model of how the chosen constructs relate to each other, and mediate effects between technical measures by a model of the operator, is proposed. Simplicity of the model was the goal, and based on former experiences and findings, a simplex structure was hypothesized. The final model shows that the covariances between the 24 measures can be explained by a quasi-simplex structure of seven factors. / Statistiskt och matematiskt underbyggda slutsatser kring ett systems operativa användbarhet är kritiska i systemutvecklingsprocesser i mångmiljardklassen. Även om det är uppenbart att människan är den viktigaste och mest kritiska komponenten i många system har det ofta varit svårt för forskare inom området Människa System Interaktion (MSI) att uttrycka mänskliga faktorer på ett statistiskt och matematiskt strikt sätt. Den här avhandlingen visar och kvantifierar hur koncepten sensoreffektivitet, användbarhet hos information, mental arbetsbelastning, situationsmedvetande, samarbete och operativ prestation relaterar tilll varandra i en fyrgrupp militära flygförare genom modellering baserad på empiriska data. Genom att använda strukturella ekvationsmodeller, här m.h.a. LISREL, visas en statistisk modell av hur variabler som beskriver operatörernas förmåga att prestera medierar effekter mellan mer systemorienterade variabler. De koncept eller faktorer som används i modelleringsprocessen har rönt stor vetenskaplig och operativ uppmärksamhet. De har också identifierats som mångdimensionella och inom forskningsområdet har en stor mängd olika mätmetoder utvecklats. Avhandlingen fokuserar på vad som sker i steget efter datainsamling, d.v.s. hur kan dessa faktorer relateras till varandra i något så mångdimensionellt som mänsklig aktivitet i verkliga situationer? En omfattande beteendevetenskaplig datamängd samlades in under en stor simuleringsbaserad anskaffningsstudie som studerade krav för en ny flygplansradar. Databasen innehåller data från 308 simulerade flygföretag, med data från fyra flygförare per företag, d.v.s. 1232 rader i databasen med 24 variabler på varje rad, vilka genererats av 37 flygförare. Den insamlade datamängden sammanfattar mer än 700 timmar av erfarna flygförares arbete och prestation i en operativt relevant miljö på ett sätt som är både teoretiskt intressant och användbart i en systemutvecklingsprocess. Data kommer från en studie i verkligheten – även om verkligheten var simulerad – som handlade om komplexa processer i en dynamisk kontext. Avhandlingen är i sig ett exempel på en modern experimentalpsykologisk ansats som är giltig och användbar för tillämpade studier. Datainsamlingen representerar inte en klassisk experimentalpsykologisk ansats utan beskriver istället metodologiska behov och avvägningar som en MSI-forskare möter under arbete med systemutveckling. En delmängd av den insamlade datamängden är sekretessbelagd, vilket inte har påverkat modellerna eller de vetenskapliga slutsatserna, men vissa praktiska slutsatser har dock utelämnats. Resultatet från modellutvecklingen är en strukturell ekvationsmodell som beskriver hur de utvalda koncepten relaterar till varandra och därigenom beskrivs relationen mellan tekniska mått m.h.a. en modell av flygförarna. Enkelhet och överblickbarhet i modellen var en del av målsättningen och baserat på tidigare erfarenheter användes en simplex struktur under modellkonceptualiseringsfasen. Den slutgiltiga modellen visar att kovarianserna mellan de 24 variablerna i databasen kan förklaras m.h.a. en kvasi-simplex struktur med sju faktorer.

In the automotive area there are ever increasing demands from legislators and customers on low emissions and good fuel economy. In the process of developing and investigating new technologies, that can meet these demands, modeling and simulation have become important as standard engineering tools. To improve the modeling process new concepts and tools are also being developed. A formulation of a differential algebraic equation (DAE) that can be used for simulation of multi-zone in-cylinder models is extended and analyzed. Special emphasis is placed on the separation between thermodynamic state equations and the thermodynamic properties. This enables implementations with easy reuse of model components and analysis of simulation results in a structured manner which gives the possibility to use the formulation in a large number of applications. The introduction and depletion of zones are handled and it is shown that the DAE formulation has a unique solution as long as the gas model fulfills a number of basic criteria. Further, an example setup is used to validate that energy, mass, and volume are preserved when using the formulation in computer simulations. In other words, the numerical solution obeys the thermodynamic state equation and the first law of thermodynamics, and the results are consistent and converge as tolerances are tightened. As example applications, the DAE formulation is used to simulate spark ignited SI and Diesel engines as well as simple control volumes and 1-dimensional pipes. It is thus shown that the DAE formulation is able to adapt to the different requirements of the SI and Diesel engine models. An interesting application is the SI engine with continuously variable cam phasing (CVCP), which is a technology that reduces the fuel consumption. It influences the amount of air and residual gases in the engine in a non trivial manner and this SI application is used to evaluate three control oriented models for cylinder air charge and residual mass fraction for a CVCP-engine both for static and transient conditions. The models are: a simple generalized flow restriction model created with physical insight and two variants of a model that is based on an energy balance at intake valve closing (IVC). The two latter models require measurement of cylinder pressure and one also requires an air mass flow measurement. Using the SI model as reference it is shown that transients in cam positions have a large impact on air charge and residual mass fraction, and the ability of the models to capture these effects is evaluated. The main advantages of the generalized flow restriction model are that it is simple and does not require measurement of the cylinder pressure but it is also the model with the largest errors for static operating points and highest sensitivity in transients. The two models that use an energy balance at IVC both handle the transient cycles well. They are, however, sensitive to the temperature at IVC. For static cycles it is therefore advantageous to use the model with air mass flow measurement since it is less sensitive to input data. During transients however, if the external measurement is delayed, it is better to use the model that does not require the air mass flow. The conclusion is that the DAE formulation is a flexible, robust, tool, and that it is well suited for multi-zone in-cylinder models as well as models for manifolds and pipes outside the cylinder.

Most of today’s microwave circuits are designed for specific function and special need. There is a growing trend to have flexible and reconfigurable circuits. Circuits that can be digitally programmed to achieve various functions based on specific needs. Realization of high frequency circuit blocks that can be dynamically reconfigured to achieve the desired performance seems to be challenging. However, with recent advances in many areas of technology these demands can now be met. Two concepts have been investigated in this thesis. The initial part presents the feasibility of a flexible and programmable circuit (PROMFA) that can be utilized for multifunctional systems operating at microwave frequencies. Design details and PROMFA implementation is presented. This concept is based on an array of generic cells, which consists of a matrix of analog building blocks that can be dynamically reconfigured. Either each matrix element can be programmed independently or several elements can be programmed collectively to achieve a specific function. The PROMFA circuit can therefore realize more complex functions, such as filters or oscillators. Realization of a flexible RF circuit based on generic cells is a new concept. In order to validate the idea, two test chips have been fabricated. The first chip implementation was carried out in a 0.2μm GaAs process, ED02AH from OMMICTM. The second chip was implemented in a standard 90nm CMOS process. Simulated and measured results are presented along with some key applications such as low noise amplifier, tunable band pass filter and a tunable oscillator. The later part of the thesis covers the design and implementation of broadband RF front-ends that can be utilized for multistandard terminals such as software defined radio (SDR). The concept of low gain, highly linear frontends has been presented. For proof of concept two test chips have been implemented in 90nm CMOS technology process. Simulated and measurement results are presented. These RF front-end implementations utilize wideband designs with active and passive mixer configurations. We have also investigated narrowband tunable LNAs. A dual band tunable LNA MMIC has been fabricated in 0.2μm GaAs process. A self tuning technique has been proposed for the optimization of this LNA.

In recent years the interest in the design of low cost multistandard mobile devices has gone from technical aspiration to the commercial reality. Usually, the emerging wireless applications prompt the conception of new wireless standards. The end user wants to access voice, data, and streaming media using a single wireless terminal. In RF perspective, these standards differ in frequency band, sensitivity, data rate, bandwidth, and modulation type. Therefore, a flexible multistandard radio receiver covering most of the cellular, WLAN, and short range communication standards in 800MHz to 6GHz band is highly desired. To keep the cost low, high level of integration becomes a necessity for the multistandard flexible radio. Due to aggressive CMOS scaling the fT of the transistors has surpassed the value of 200 GHz. Moreover, as the CMOS technology has proven to be the best suited for monolithic integration, therefore it seems to be the future choice for the physical implementation of such a flexible receiver. In this thesis, two multiband sampling radio receiver front-ends implemented in 130 nm and 90 nm CMOS including test circuitry (DfT) are presented that is one step ahead in this direction. In modern radio transceivers the estimated cost of testing is a significant portion of manufacturing cost and is escalating with every new generation of RF chips. In order to reduce the test cost it is important to identify the faulty circuits very early in the design flow, even before packaging. In this thesis, on-chip testing techniques to reduce the test time and cost are presented. For integrated RF transceivers the chip reconfiguration by loopback setup can be used. Variants including the bypassing technique to improve testability and to enable on-chip test when the direct loopback is not feasible are presented. A technique for boosting the testability by the elevated symbol error rate test (SER) is also presented. It achieves better sensitivity and shorter test time compared to the standard SER test. Practical DfT implementation is addressed by circuit level design of various test blocks such as a linear attenuator, stimulus generator, and RF detectors embedded in RF chips without notable performance penalty. The down side of CMOS scaling is the increase in parameter variability due to process variations and mismatch. Both the test circuitry (DfT) and the circuit under test (CUT) are affected by these variations. A new calibration scheme for the test circuitry to compensate this effect is presented. On-chip DC measurements supported by a statistical regression method are used for this purpose. Wideband low-reflection PCB transmission lines are needed to enable the functional RF testing using external signal generators for RF chips directly bonded on the PCB. Due to extremely small chip dimensions it is not possible to layout the transmission line without width discontinuity. A step change in the substrate thickness is utilized to cancel this effect thus resulting in the low-reflection transmission line. In summary, all of these techniques at the system and circuit level pave a way to new opportunities towards low-cost transceiver testing, especially in volume production.

This dissertation embraces the issue of evaluating design concepts. Being able to sort out the potential“best solutions” from a set of solutions is a central and important part of the design process. The subjectdiscussed in this dissertation has its origins in the lack of knowledge about design concepts, somethingwhich is characteristic of the initial part of the design process and which frequently causes problems whenit comes to evaluation and selection of solutions. The purpose of this dissertation is to develop aids andmethods that enhance the understanding of design concepts in the early phases of the design process. From deductive reasoning about the fundamental mechanisms of the evaluation activity, the work hasbeen divided into three different areas: process and system modelling, concept optimisation, andidentification of potential failures. The bearing of the work within the area of process and system modelling has a verifying character. Theobjective of the work has been to analyse how established design methodology, which has its commonapplications within traditional engineering industry, may be applied within an area that is characterised bymore multidisciplinary interfaces, like biotechnology. The result of a number of case studies, in whichdifferent types of biotechnical systems where analysed and modelled, shows that the methodology isapplicable even for biotechnical products. During the work the methodology has also been furtherelaborated on in order to better suit the distinguishing characteristics exhibited in the development ofbiotechnical systems. Within the area of concept optimisation, an approach for optimising the concept generation has beenelaborated. By formalising the step in both concept generation and evaluation, it has been possible toapply genetic algorithms in order to optimise the process. The work has resulted in a model thatautomatically creates and sorts out a number of potential solutions from a defined solution space and adefined set of goals. The last area, which deals with identification of potential failures, has resulted in a rather novel way toconsider and model the behaviour of a system. The approach is an elaboration of the modellingtechniques within system theory, and deduces the system’s behaviour from known physical phenomenaand the system’s ability to effectuate them. The way the different behaviours interact with one another, byaffecting the properties of the system, determines the potential for a failure to occur. A “failure”,according to the model, is described as an unintended behaviour which obstructs the system’sfunctionality, i.e. which affects the conditions of a desired behaviour. The dissertation has resulted in three different means for approaching the difficulties associated with theevaluation of design concepts. The means are applicable during different parts of the design process, butthey all address the same issue, viz. to enhance the understanding of the design solutions.

Protein aggregation is an event related to numerous neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzhemier’s disease and prion diseases. However little is known as to how and why the aggregates form and furthermore, the toxic specie may not be the mature fibril but an on route or off route specie towards mature aggregates. During this project molecular probes were synthesized that may shed some light to these questions. The probes are thiophene based and the technique used for detection was mainly fluorescence. It was shown that the previously established thiophene based in vitro staining technique is valid ex vivo and in vivo. This would not have been possible without the synthesis of a variety of functionalized polymeric thiophene based probes; their in vitro and ex vivo staining properties were taken into consideration when the design of the small oligomeric probes were decided upon. These probes were shown to spectrally distinguish different types of amyloid, pass the bloodbrain barrier within minutes and specifically and selectively stain protein aggregates in the brains of mice.

In the Constraint Satisfaction Problem (CSP) one is supposed to find an assignment to a set of variables so that a set of given constraints are satisfied. Many problems, both practical and theoretical, can be modelled as CSPs. As these problems are computationally hard it is interesting to investigate what kind of restrictions of the problems implies computational tractability. In this thesis the computational complexity of restrictions of two optimisation problems which are related to the CSP is studied. In optimisation problems one can also relax the requirements and ask for an approximatively good solution, instead of requiring the optimal one. The first problem we investigate is Maximum Solution (Max Sol) where one is looking for a solution which satisfies all constraints and also maximises a linear bjective function. The Maximum Solution problem is a generalisation of the well-known integer linear programming problem. In the case when the constraints are equations over an abelian group we obtain tight inapproximability results. We also study Max Sol for so-called maximal constraint languages and a partial classification theorem is obtained in this case. Finally, Max Sol over the boolean domain is studied in a setting where each variable only occurs a bounded number of times. The second problem is the Maximum Constraint Satisfaction Problem (Max CSP). In this problem one is looking for an assignment which maximises the number of satisfied constraints. We first show that if the constraints are known to give rise to an NP-hard CSP, then one cannot get arbitrarily good approximate solutions in polynomial time, unless P = NP. We use this result to show a similar hardness result for the case when only one constraint relation is used. We also study the submodular function minimisation problem (SFM) on certain finite lattices. There is a strong link between Max CSP and SFM; new tractability results for SFM implies new tractability results for Max CSP. It is conjectured that SFM is the only reason for Max CSP to be tractable, but no one has yet managed to prove this. We obtain new tractability results for SFM on diamonds and evidence which supports the hypothesis that all modular lattices are tractable. / I ett villkorsprogrammeringsproblem är uppgiften att tilldela värden till variabler så att en given mängd villkor blir uppfyllda. Många praktiska problem, så som schemaläggning och planering, kan formuleras som villkorsprogrammeringsproblem och det är därför önskvärt att ha effektiva algoritmer för att hitta lösningar till denna typ av problem. De generella varianterna av dessa problem är NP-svåra att lösa. Detta innebär att det antagligen inte finns effektiva algoritmer för problemen (om inte P = NP vilket anses vara mycket osannolikt). Av denna anledning förenklar vi problemet genom att studera restriktioner av det och ibland nöjer vi oss med approximativa lösningar. I den här avhandlingen studeras två varianter av villkorsprogrammeringsproblemet där man inte bara ska hitta en lösning utan hitta en så bra lösning som möjligt. I den första varianten är målet att hitta en tilldelning där samtliga villkor uppfylls och att en viktad summa av variablerna maximeras. Detta problem kan ses som en generalisering av det välkända linjära heltalsprogrammeringsproblemet. I den andra varianten är målet att hitta en tilldelning som uppfyller så många villkor som möjligt. Då det gäller den första varianten, då man ska hitta en lösning som uppfyller samtliga villkor som också maximerar summan av variablerna, presenteras nya resultat för ett antal specialfall. De så kallade maximala villkorsmängderna studeras och komplexiteten för ett antal av dessa bestäms. Vi studerar också en variant av problemet över den Boolska domänen då antal variabelförekomster är begränsat. I detta fall ger vi en partiell klassifikation över vilka villkorsmängder som är hanterbara och vilka som inte kan lösas effektivt. För den andra varianten, då man ska uppfylla så många villkor som möjligt, presenteras några nya effektiva algoritmer för vissa restriktioner. I dessa algoritmer löses det mer generella problemet av minimering av submodulära funktioner över vissa ändliga latticar. Vi bevisar också ett resultat som beskriver exakt när det finns effektiva algoritmer då man endast har tillgång till en typ av villkor.