Faculty of Science School of Geography Archaeology and Enviromental Science 0406606f wglenny@nmsa.org.za / The analysis of micromammal remains from the MSA deposits at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, constitutes the first in-depth study of the micromammal assemblage at this site. This study highlights the usefulness of taphonomic analyses and micromammal assemblages in the reconstruction of past environments. Little digestive etching suggests that Tyto alba, Tyto capensis and Asio capensis, are the most likely nocturnal raptors responsible for the accumulation of the assemblage. The environmental information from the Sibudu micromammal assemblage showed similarities with other proxy site data from charcoal, seed and macrofaunal analyses. These studies indicate that the immediate environment around Sibudu Cave was very similar at 53.4 ± 3.2 kyr (OSL) and 35.2 ± 1.8 kyr (OSL), consisting of a complex mosaic environment, dominated by open savannah grassland with a small woodland and riverine element.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 25th of July 2013, Johannesburg. / The cave deposits at Malapa, on the Malapa Nature Reserve, Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site, Gauteng Province, South Africa, have yielded the remains of two extremely well-preserved hominins (Australopithecus sediba) and associated fauna, dated by U/Pb methods and palaeomagnetism to 1.977-1.8 Ma. The state of preservation of the hominins and some of the non-hominin material, characterised by complete and near complete elements, antimeric sets of bones, specimens in articulation, and well-preserved bone surfaces, is remarkable in the context of Plio-Pleistocene fossil assemblages accumulated in caves, and indicates a unique combination of taphonomic processes, not yet observed in contemporaneous cave deposits in the region. A comprehensive approach, including palaeontological, physical, and spatial analyses of the hominins and associated fauna was undertaken to determine, describe and interpret the taphonomy of the faunal material, with particular reference to the holotype and paratype of Au. sediba, Malapa Hominin 1 (MH1) and Malapa Hominin 2 (MH2). An innovative combination of Computed-Tomography (CT), micro-CT scanning and virtual reconstruction techniques was applied to create a 3D model of a selected area of the Malapa cave, with renderings of the two near-complete Au. sediba skeletons. The original burial position of the hominins was reconstructed, which necessitated the refitting of ex situ fossils into in situ deposits. The spatial distribution and orientation of the hominin remains illustrate a very low degree of dispersal of the bones, indicative of very little disruption between death and burial, due to an absence of damage by scavengers and possible natural mummification. The very few carnivore-damaged bones and relative abundance of complete and/or articulated specimens, the presence of antimeric sets of bones in the faunal assemblage, as well as the diversity of the faunal spectrum, and the significant percentage of animals with climbing proclivities (such as carnivores and hominins) indicate that the majority of the faunal material recovered was most likely accumulated via a natural death trap. Their bodies came to rest in a deep area of the cave system with restricted access to iii scavengers. Skeletons and bones accumulated in a talus cone below a vertical shaft. There, they decomposed, and became buried without major disruption by biotic or abiotic agents. A new forensic approach, referred to as palaeoforensic taphonomy, was followed in each step of the taphonomic analysis of the two hominins in order to reconstruct the processes of decay, disarticulation, burial and preservation. Results show that both individuals did probably not enter the cave system at the same time. They reached skeletonization and were slightly weathered before final burial, indicating several years of exposure before burial. Insects proved to be the primary modifiers of the hominin remains, pre- and post-depositional with hide beetles (Omorgus squalidus) providing the closest match for some of the fossil modifications observed. Based on the high number of articulated remains, the absence of preferential orientation for the elongated bones and of significant movement of the hominin remains inside the deposit, the debris flow hypothesis that was previously proposed as the principal agent to explain the burial of the hominins and other well-preserved animals is challenged. Evidence of natural mummification before burial for MH1 and MH2 suggests the possible preservation of soft tissue. The innovative 3D techniques applied in this research to conduct the spatial analysis of the fossils proved useful to address taphonomic questions, and will serve as a guide for future excavations of the Malapa in situ deposits, especially for locating the missing skeletal elements of MH1 and MH2.

Foram estudados os restos de peixes de três sítios arqueológicos no estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Os sítios RS-S-327 e o RS-C-61 Pilger, estão localizados nas bacias dos rios Sinos e Caí, em abrigos sob-rocha, formados pela erosão dos arenitos da formação Botucatu. Foram identificadas 14 espécies de peixes no sítio arqueológico RS-S-327-Sangão: Bunocephalus sp.; Crenicichla sp.; Geophagus sp.; Hoplias sp.; Hypostomus sp.; Hoplosternum sp.; Microglanis sp.; Oligosarcus sp.; Pimelodus sp.; Prochilodus sp.; Rhamdia sp.; Salminus sp.; Synbranchus sp. No sítio arqueológico RS-C-61- Adelar Pilger 12 espécies de peixes: Crenicichla sp.; Geophagus sp.; Hoplias sp.; Hoplosternum sp.; Hypostomus sp.; Leporinus sp.; Oligosarcus sp.; Pimelodus sp.; Prochilodus sp.; Rhamdia sp.; Salminus sp.; Synbranchus sp., e uma espécie marinha:Carcharinus sp. A presença de espécies que apresentam migração reprodutiva corrobora a hipótese de que esses abrigos sob-rocha, eram ocupados em períodos mais quentes do ano. A maior exploração de espécies de peixes oriundas de ambientes próximos aos sítios aponta para uma atividade de pesca não especializada, feita dentro da área de influência doméstica dos abrigos. A análise dos vestígios do sítio RS-AS-01, Sambaqui Praia do Paraíso, localizado em Arroio do Sal (RS), demonstrou que molusco Mesodesma mactroides, foi a espécie dominante em todos os níveis estratigráficos, sendo seguida por Donax hanleyanus. Dentre os vertebrados, os peixes apresentaram o maior número de peças identificadas, representados em maior número por Genidens sp., Pogonias chromis, Menticirrhuslittoralise Micropogonias furnieri e espécies com menor representação: Paralonchurus brasiliensis, Macrodon sp., Cynoscion sp., Mugil sp., Paralichthys sp., Urophycis sp. e duas espécies dulcícolas: Hoplias sp. e Microglanis sp.. A estimativa das dimensões corporais com base nos otólitos das espécies Genidens sp., Menticirhuslitorallis e Micropogoniasfurnieri, conduziu a hipótese do uso de redes com malha padronizada. As experimentações da quebra e seccionamento de esporões de Genidens barbus, demonstraram que a quebra de esporões "in natura" e dos espécimes assados envoltos em folhas mostraram padrões de quebra irregulares. Os esporões dos exemplares assados em forno elétrico mostraram padrões de quebra regulares. Os exemplares expostos ao cozimento apresentaram um padrão de descoloração diretamente proporcional ao tempo de exposição. Os exemplares seccionados com lasca lítica por fricção apresentaram padrões condizentes com aqueles encontrados em esporões procedentes de sítios arqueológicos da cultura Sambaqui. Tendo como objetivo fornecer opções para melhoria das análises arqueofaunísticas, foi desenvolvido um programa para o gerenciamento de dados zooarqueológicos, utilizando a linguagem Pascal e como compilador/editor o ambiente de programação Delphi. O banco de dados é formado por lotes numerados sequencialmente, onde além das informações básicas para identificação da origem das peças é possível incluir informações sobre taxonomia, anatomia e tafonomia das peças. Considerando a grande diversidade de animais, as opções para inclusão de novos táxons estão em aberto a partir do nível de Filo. Diversas opções oferecidas pela bibliografia para os cálculos de NISP (número de espécimes identificados), NMI (Número mínimo de indivíduos) e tafonomia, foram contempladas pelo programa O sistema desenvolvido possibilita a tradução do software para qualquer língua com alfabeto latino e interação remota entre o usuário remoto e um servidor central. O programa ArchaeoBones, demonstrou ser eficiente para o registro de vestígios arqueológicos, geração de dados primários e secundários com confiabilidade e repetibilidade compatíveis com o grande número de dados utilizados. / Were studied the fish remains of three archaeological sites in the state of Rio Grande do Sul State, Brasil. The RS-S-327 and the RS-C-61, Pilger sites are located in the Sinos and Caí rivers basins in rock shelters formed by erosion of the Botucatu formation sandstones. Were identified 14 species of fish in RS-S-327-Sangão site: Bunocephalus sp.; Crenicichla sp.; Geophagus sp.; Hoplias sp.; Hypostomus sp.; Hoplosternum sp.; Microglanis sp.; Oligosarcus sp.; Pimelodus sp.; Prochilodus sp.; Rhamdia sp.; Salminus sp.; Synbranchus sp. And 12 species of fish in the RS-C-61- Adelar Pilger archaeological site: Crenicichla sp.; Geophagus sp.; Hoplias sp.; Hoplosternum sp.; Hypostomus sp.; Leporinus sp.; Oligosarcus sp.; Pimelodus sp.; Prochilodus sp.; Rhamdia sp.; Salminus sp.; Synbranchus sp., and a marine species: Carcharinus sp. The hypothesis that these rock shelters were occupied in warmer periods of the year is suported by the presence of species with reproductive migration. A further exploration of fish species from environments close to the sites point to a fishing activity unspecialized made within the domestic shelters range of influence.The analysis of the remains of RS-AS-01, Sambaqui Praia do Paraíso site, located in Arroio do Sal (RS) showed that clam Mesodesma mactroides was the dominant species in all stratigraphic levels, followed by Donax hanleyanus. Among vertebrates, the fish had the highest number of identified parts, represented in numbers by Genidens sp.; Pogonias chromis, Menticirrhus littoralis and Micropogonias furnieri and species with less representation: Paralonchurus brasiliensis, Macrodon sp.; Cynoscion sp.; Mugil sp.; Paralichthys sp.; Urophycis sp., and two freshwater species: Hoplias sp. and Microglanis sp. Based on otolith dimensions, the estimation of body size of Genidens sp.; Menticirhus litorallis and Micropogonias furnieri has led the hypothesis of a use of nets with standardized mesh. The experiments of breaking and sectioning demonstrated that in Genidens barbus copies, breaking spines "in natura" and roasted specimens wrapped in leaves showed irregulars break patterns The spines of specimens roasted in an electric oven showed regular breaks paterns. The specimens exposed to cooking in wather, showed a discoloration pattern directly proportional to the exposure time. Spines sectioned by lithic flake friction showed consistent patterns with those found in spines coming from Sambaqui culture archaeological sites. Aiming supply options to improvement of archaeofaunal analyzes, we developed a software for zooarchaeologycal data management, using Pascal language and Delphi programming environment how compiler/editor. The database consists of sequentially numbered lots, in which beyond the basic information to identify the origin of parts, can include information on taxonomy, anatomy and taphonomy of the pieces. Regard to the great diversity of animals, the options to include new taxa are open from Phylum level. Several options offered by bibliography for NISP (number of identified specimens) and MNI (minimum number of individuals) calculations and taphonomic characteristics were included in the program. The developed system allows the software translation into any language in Latin alphabet and interaction between the remote user and a central server. The ArchaeoBones software proved efficient for recording archaeological remains, generating primary and secondary data with consistent reliability and repeatability with the large number of data used.

Despite the fact that fish are a common component of coastal and other aquatic archaeological sites, fish bone taphonomy--including bone surface modifications and the effects of burial--remains woefully understudied. Various ethnographic accounts describe fish butchering techniques for immediate consumption and drying, yet cut marks are rarely reported on archaeological fish remains. To address a significant gap in our understanding of fish taphonomy, I devised an experimental research program aimed at assessing whether butchering fish produces cut marks on fish bones and, if so, what factors might account for the discrepancy between the experimental results and the archaeological record. Chapter I provides an introduction to experimental archaeology, including the criticisms and benefits of this approach. Chapter II presents the results of my initial butchery experiment, which establishes that butchering fish can produce abundant cut marks. Chapter III evaluates the effect of the butcher's skill level on the number and distribution of cut marks produced on fish bone during butchery. The results indicate that professional butchers produce nearly 50 percent fewer cut marks than novice- and intermediate-level butchers. Chapter IV addresses the effect of post-depositional taphonomic processes on the long-term visibility of cut marks. Despite a relatively short burial period (27 months), visible cut marks decreased by up to 75 percent, depending on the species. Chapter V is a re-analysis of the fish bone from column E6 at Daisy Cave (CA-SMI-261). Appling the referential framework I acquired through the experiments, I identified 62 cut marks on bones dating from the Early to Late Holocene. A comprehensive understanding of aquatic resource use has implications for a broad range of archaeological topics, including our understanding of hominid diet and resource use; identifying butchery and processing practices among fishing peoples; distinguishing between human and natural agency in the accumulation of fish remains; and assessing questions of behavioral modernity and social complexity. As we continue to recognize the primacy of coastal adaptations throughout human history, it is increasingly critical to expand the breadth of our knowledge regarding the taphonomy of fish remains at archaeological sites. This dissertation includes previously published and unpublished co-authored material.

Student Number : 0001944J - PhD thesis - School of Geography, Archaeoloy nd Environmental Studies and School of Anatomical Science - Faculty of Science / The site of Sterkfontein is rich in fossil deposits spanning different time periods from as early as 4 million years to as recent as 116, 000 years. Stratigraphy, taxonomy, taphonomy, archaeology and palaeoenvironmental analysis from various infills have been under constant review as new materials are recovered from the ongoing excavations. It is the recovery of numerous new fossils that prompted a need for a review into earlier hypotheses, interpretations and conclusions arrived at by earlier researchers on the Member 4 and the Jacovec Cavern infills. New data indicates that the two infills, though spanning different time periods, share similarities but also display marked differences in taxonomy, taphonomy and palaeoenvironment. Taxonomically, the most striking difference between the two deposits is the higher frequency of taxa and species diversity within the Member 4 faunal assemblage than in the Jacovec Cavern faunal assemblage. There are nine bovid tribes represented in five subfamilies within Member 4 and six bovid tribes in three subfamilies within Jacovec Cavern. At least five primate species have been recovered from Member 4 while three primate species have been recovered from the Jacovec Cavern. Twelve carnivore species are represented in Member 4 while eleven are represented in Jacovec Cavern. Some categories of other fauna are limited to the Member 4 infill while others are limited to the Jacovec Cavern infill. Taphonomically, both assemblages are characterized by low frequencies of bone modification. These low frequencies are a result of a culmination of various agents of accumulation and varieties and intensities of postdepositional processes that impacted on the original deposited assemblage prior to recovery. The faunal assemblage in Member 4 was accumulated into the cave through a combination of voiding carnivores, “death trap” and natural death within the cave. The Jacovec Cavern fauna on the other hand was accumulated by carnivores, not in the cavern but on the surface above and within the vicinity of the cave entrance. Eventually fluvial action incorporated the surface materials, including faunal remains into the Jacovec Cavern. Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction indicates a correlation of climatic conditions similar to that derived from analysis of terrigenous sediments off the coast of Africa. For Member 4, palaeoenvironmental reconstruction indicates the existence of a mix of forest and open savannah with more emphasis on woodland, while a mosaic of open grassland and dense forest, equivalent to today’s tropical forest in Africa is suggested for the Jacovec Cavern.

In homicide cases, suitcases provide concealment and ease of transport of a body and reduce the likelihood of detection. When estimating a minimum postmortem interval (mPMI), it is necessary to understand the taphonomic processes that occur when a body is concealed within a suitcase. In this study, the experimental carcasses consisted of pig (Sus scrofa Linnaeus) heads concealed within either hard shell or fabric suitcases whereas control pig heads were decomposed naturally. All control pigs heads attracted blowflies (Calliphoridae) immediately and mummified within days, whereas the experimental pigs heads had an oviposition delay of approximately 72 hours and decomposed resulting in skeletonization. Differences in the arthropod species present varied between the experimental and control pigs heads. Temperature comparisons revealed significant (p <0.001) differences between the experimental and control pigs heads. How a corpse decomposes when a suitcase is used for body disposal must be considered when estimating the mPMI.

Bite marks provide direct evidence of trophic interactions, feeding behavior, and inter- or intraspecific conflict in the fossil record. However, their utility as a source of taphonomic and paleoecologic data requires differentiation from traces left by other processes. Since the 19th century, taphonomists have often relied on actualistic observations of modern bite marks and feeding behaviors in order to identify diagnostic traces and patterns. A recent increase in interest in taphonomic research has resulted in a large body of work describing patterns of bite marks from many different clades. Most research has been focused on mammalian taxa, but a smaller number of non-mammalian groups, including crocodylians, have also drawn interest. Crocodylians are taphonomic agents who consume and modify bones, often depositing them in the active depositional systems in which they live. However, actualistic observations of crocodylian bite marks have been limited to forensic case studies and surveys of two taxa: Crocodylus niloticus and Crocodylus porosus. Both surveys utilized captive animals, which often exhibit atypical morphologies that may bias ensuing bite mark datasets. In order to address this issue, a 2D morphometric analysis of Alligator mississippiensis crania from captive and wild specimens was performed. A principal component analysis and a canonical variates analysis revealed some statistically significant differences between the two groups, while crossvalidation had mixed resuts. An ANCOVA test of the covariance of centroid size and origin against shape (principal component scores) revealed that the effects of ontogeny introduced a stronger signal than captivity. This implies that while using captive crocodylians in fine scale analyses should be avoided, they are suitable for gross scale research, such as bite mark analyses. To explore crocodylian bite mark patterns in greater depth, a large scale survey of traces left by A. mississippiensis was performed. Bite mark types on samples taken from individual feedings were discussed in light of vital statistics and collection protocols. Bite mark types on samples taken from group feedings were classified by location and orientation on bone and type. The results were compared to pre-existing crocodylian datasets with regards to potentially diagnostic traits: bisected marks, hook scores, and a lack of furrows. Bisected marks were found in rates similar to those seen in C. niloticus, and rates of hook scoring and bone breakage were higher. These traces were present in higher rates than those reported in C. porosus. Furrows were identified, but rare. Finally, a survey of bite marks from 21 of the 23 generally recognized species of extant crocodylians was performed to better characterize marks found across Crocodylia and to test methods for synthesizing taphonomic datasets. Bite marks were identified, and specimens were then coded for presence or absence of mark subscores. Attempts to find statistical correlation between mark types, animal vital statistics, and sample collection protocol were unsuccessful. Mapping bite mark character states on a eusuchian phylogeny successfully predicted the presence of bisected marks in previously published, extinct taxa. Predictions for clades that may have created multiple subscores, striated marks, and extensive crushing were also generated. Inclusion of fossil bite marks which have been positively associated with extinct species allow this method to be projected beyond the crown group. The results of this study indicate that phylogenies can and should be explored further for use as predictive tools in a taphonomic framework.

The development and improvement of methods used for the estimation of the postmortem interval (PMI) is a common area of research in forensic science. This research was conducted to physically and chemically analyze pig carcass decomposition on a soil surface using conventional and newly developed methods for the potential use in estimating the PMI. Photographs of pig carcasses decomposing on forested and open land were scored using a decomposition scoring system and decomposition scores were related to accumulated degree days (ADD). Overall, the ADD values were significantly different for the two groups of carcasses; however, the ADD values for the onset of each score demonstrated more similarity between groups. Decomposition scoring results also indicated that refinements must be made to the calculation of ADD to allow for a meaningful comparison of pig and human decomposition. The decomposition of pig carcasses altered the water content, pH and fatty acid content of soil. The fatty acids, myristic, palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic and oleic acids were successfully extracted and analyzed from decomposition soil. Palmitic, stearic and oleic acids were the most abundant fatty acids detected whilst the levels of myristic and palmitoleic acids were negligible in comparison. A three peak fatty acid cycle was also observed for each fatty acid. Variations in soil pH and fatty acid content of decomposition soil have the potential to indicate the presence of a decomposition site. Furthermore, a nonlinear diffusion model was developed to predict the development of the cadaver decomposition island (CDI) in soil over time. The simulation of the model indicated that the diffusion model has the potential to generate PMI estimations for early stages of decomposition by corresponding the effective radius of the CDI to a particular time point. The general findings of this research indicate that more accurate methods for PMI estimations can potentially be developed with further research. / UOIT

Thesis (M.A.)--Texas State University-San Marcos, 2008. / Vita. Appendices: leaves 74-79. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 80-84). Also available on microfilm.

Thesis (MA)--University of Montana, 2009. / Contents viewed on November 30, 2009. Title from author supplied metadata. Includes bibliographical references.