The computer to pupil ratio has changed drastically in the past decades, from 125:1 in 1983 to less than 2:1 in 2009 (Gray, Thomas, and Lewis, 2010), allowing for teachers and students to integrate technology throughout the educational experience. The area of educational assessment has adapted to the increased use of technology. Trends in assessment and technology include a movement from paper-based to computer-based testing for all types of assessments, from large-scale assessments to teacher-created classroom tests. Computer-based testing comes with many benefits when compared to paper-based testing, but it is necessary to determine if results are comparable, especially in situations where computer-based and paper-based tests can be used interchangeably. The main purpose of this study was to expand upon the base of research comparing paper-based and computer-based testing, specifically with elementary students and mathematical fluency. The study was designed to answer the following research questions: (1) Are there differences in fluency-based performance on math computation problems presented on paper versus on the computer? (2) Are there differential mode effects on computer-based tests based on sex, grade level, or ability level? A mixed-factorial design with both within- and between-subject variables was used to investigate the differences between performance on paper-based and computer-based tests of mathematical fluency. Participants completed both paper- and computer-based tests, as well as the Group Math Assessment and Diagnostic Evaluation as a measure of general math ability. Overall findings indicate that performance on paper- and computer-based tests of mathematical fluency are not comparable and student grade-level may be a contributing factor in that difference.

Nearly 70% of preschool children in the United States are enrolled in child care facilities. This means that they eat many meals away from their homes. Despite government support for childhood nutrition through the Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP), research that measures the nutritional value of meals served in child care facilities has been lacking. The purpose of this quantitative study was to determine if there are differences in the calories and nutritional value of lunch meals offered to preschool children in facilities that participate in CACFP and in facilities that do not participate in CACFP. Ajzen's theory of planned behavior formed the theoretical foundation for this study. Two research questions addressed the nutrient and caloric content of lunches served in CACFP and non-CACFP facilities. An ex post facto quasi experimental design was used to compare 598 meals from existing monthly menus from a random sample of 30 child care facilities located in a state in the Southwestern United States. Using a MANOVA test, significantly greater amounts of proteins, fats, and calories were found in meals served by non-CACFP facilities. A comparison of actual menu items suggested that greater numbers of fatty foods were present in menus served at non-CACFP facilities. These results support literature that found childhood illnesses, like obesity and malnutrition, may stem from high-calorie meals that lack adequate nutrients. This study may contribute to positive social change by supporting nutrition oversight, such as that provided by the CACFP program; encouraging tighter state and local nutritional guidelines in child care; and focusing attention on the importance of everyday nutrition for all children attending child care facilities.

Mathematics scores of middle school students are a major concern for educators, community leaders, parents, and other stakeholders. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to examine the perceptions of teachers regarding (a) Voyager Math (VM) as a tool to improve students' academic performance and (b) their ideas about its implementation. The theoretical foundation was guided by the theories of discovery learning, sociocultural theory, expectancy theory, and social constructivism. The research questions addressed how teachers in Grades 6-8 implemented the VM program and perceived mathematics learning effectiveness. Data collection included administrator and teacher interviews, classroom observations, and related documents of one middle school in a single southeastern school district. Twelve purposefully selected 6-8 grade mathematics teachers and 2 administrators participated in classroom observations and semistructured interviews at the research site to provide triangulated data. Data were recorded and transcribed, then analyzed and coded for themes. Teachers and administrators agreed that the VM program was an effective remedial mathematics program. The results revealed differences in remedial mathematics teaching strategies, how students are grouped according to mathematics scores, and an overall emphasis placed on mathematics throughout the school. The implications for social change include educational leaders implementing relevant professional development classes and understanding teachers' experiences.

The majority of teachers in a medium-sized, rural, low socioeconomic high school in the U.S. state of Arkansas were not implementing mandated project-based learning (PjBL) or were not implementing the method with fidelity, which was problematic because students may not have been reaping benefits associated with the method. The reasons underlying those conditions were not well understood. Therefore, the purpose of this study, which was reflected in the study's 2 main research questions, was to better understand why teachers at the focus school were not implementing PjBL or were not implementing PjBL with fidelity and to generate potential solutions for improving teacher implementation of PjBL. Concepts from Ajzen and Fishbein's theory of planned behavior, Bandura's self-efficacy theory, and Deci and Ryan's self-determination theory served as a foundation for understanding the conceptual framework in this study, teacher behavior. In this generic qualitative study, data were collected from 28 teachers using an online anonymous qualitative survey, and from 3 principals using a focus group. Documents from faculty and personnel meetings did not yield usable data. Open and axial coding were used to analyze the survey and focus group data. Results showed that teachers may not implement PjBL or may not implement it with fidelity because (a) they are not knowledgeable about PjBL, (b) they have a negative attitude toward PjBL, (c) they do not feel confident in their ability to implement PjBL, (d) they are not motivated to implement PjBL, and/or (e) they do not have the needed supports to implement PjBL. Results of this study could be used by stakeholders to improve teacher implementation of PjBL at the focus school, which could lead to positive social change in the form of improved student engagement, motivation, and achievement.

Despite state requirements, standards, and recommendations from various early childhood agencies, huge differences exist in levels of education held by teachers of 4-year-olds in early childhood classrooms, which may affect the quality of service they offer to children as well as students' performance on assessments. This quantitative study determined whether significant differences existed between assessment scores of at-risk children taught by teachers with different levels of education and years of experience using standardized assessments (Teaching Strategies GOLD [TSG] and Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening [PALS]). The theoretical framework for this study was Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory of human development. Data were analyzed using a descriptive and 1-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Pretest and posttest data were collected from an archived database of TSG and PALS assessment scores of 142 at-risk Prekindergarten 4 children who were taught by 18 different Prekindergarten 4 teachers at a local Head Start site. A 1-way MANOVA multivariate test indicated that assistant teachers' level of education was statistically significant at p = .012. A univariate 1-way ANOVA indicated that no statistically significant difference was found among the groups of dependent variables. It is recommended that attention be focused on teacher practice and teacher-child interaction backed with adequate professional development, rather than levels of education and experience. This study may support the hiring of committed teachers who can turn knowledge into practice and use data to inform their practice to unlock the potential of at-risk children.

The fundamental purpose of teacher professional development programs is to improve instructional effectiveness and increase student learning. However, the target district offered no programs that focused on helping teachers develop strategies to meet state standards in music education. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to investigate elementary and middle school music educators' perceptions regarding the need for targeted professional development programs. Self-determination theory served as the foundation for this study. Research questions concerned participants' views of the impact of district professional development programs on their competency in enhancing students' musical skills and their decision-making and connectedness with other music education teachers. Participants included a unique purposeful sampling of 9 music educators. Data from individual questionnaire interviews, a focus group, and a reflective field journal were analyzed for key themes. These themes were relevant professional development, limited access to resources, and lack of time for music professional development. Participants perceived that effective professional development provided music educators with sufficient time to plan, network, and collaborate with one another and incorporated relevant resources. Based on these findings, a professional development workshop was designed to help music educators in developing a professional learning team. Targeted professional development programs, such as the one developed in this study, may help music educators increase student achievement, which may potentially result in positive social change.

Oftentimes, educators are not equipped to identify students who are at risk of dropping out in their first year of high school. High school students at a local school setting were having a difficult time transitioning into the ninth grade and maintaining passing grades. The purpose of this study was to investigate reasons why students leave high school before completion and whether the current interventions in the ninth grade academy are effective in decreasing the dropout rate at a local high school in northeast Louisiana. The research question addressed interventions that could help students remain in school, decrease the dropout rate, and provide opportunities for students to graduate from high school. Prior literature pertaining to improving student retention provided the conceptual framework for the study. The overall design of the study was a case study in which data were collected through interviews from 15 teachers who taught in the ninth grade academy and minutes from team meetings. Data were analyzed through coding to determine emergent themes. The key results of the study indicated that the tutoring program, adult mentor program, and credit recovery program did have an impact on keeping students in school but were not significant enough to have improvement in reducing the dropout rate. Based on the findings, a project was developed that would train teachers on how to incorporate teaching strategies in the curriculum that would engage students in learning. Recommendations include additional staff development on how to engage students in the classroom. The potential for positive social change includes teachers having multiple strategies on hand for improving student engagement in the classroom, thus producing better retention and graduation rates for students.

In 2007, the state of Georgia answered the call of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 with training that introduced differentiation instruction in the classroom. However, to date, few studies have investigated whether differentiated instruction in Georgia high school classrooms are associated with student success. The purpose of this quantitative study was to fill this gap in the literature by determining whether a significant relationship existed between levels of differentiated instruction and 11th-grade student scores on the standardized End-of-Course Tests (EOCTs) in a Georgia high school. The modern concept of differentiated instruction to improve pedagogy and erudition constituted the theoretical foundation for this study. The purposeful sample for the study included 15 teachers and 323 EOCT scores. Classroom differentiated instruction was assessed using 3 months of archival data from the Georgia Teacher Assessment Performance Standards (TAPS) rubric, such that each teacher received a differentiated instruction score based on each classroom of students (independent variable). Student success on standardized tests was operationalized as 11th-grade student scores in each classroom on the EOCT (dependent variable). Teacher TAPS scores and corresponding student EOCT scores were high, but due to a lack of variability in the data, a significant positive relationship could not be shown. Teachers indicated positive attitudes toward differentiated instruction in the classroom and reported that areas of need for implementing differentiated instruction were resources and administrator support. The implications for positive social change include the potential to create stronger support systems (consisting of educators, students, parents, administrators, and the community) for differentiated education, in order to enhance student academic achievement.

High-quality preschool is freely available at two locations in a rural area. However, many parents choose not to send their children to preschool at all, despite its availability and demonstrated benefits to children. The purpose of this qualitative exploratory study was to understand why families did not enroll children pre-K. Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems model was used as a conceptual framework for the study. which suggests that child development is influenced by multiple environmental factors. Research questions were related to examining the perspectives of parents who had not enrolled their children in pre-K on their inhibitions and inducements to enroll their children in pre-K. Interviews were conducted with parents who did not enroll their children in high-quality preschool. Semi-structured interviews with 12 parents of kindergarten-enrolled children at a single school in a mid-west state were conducted to address questions. Data acquired from interviews were analyzed using open, axial, and selective coding. Inhibitors to enrollment included lack of transportation, lack of knowledge of program availability, and parental attachment to their young child. Participants reported the currently zero cost as an inducement, and they noted that more convenient transportation and extended pre-K hours would also induce them to enroll their children in pre-K. Parents disagreed about the usefulness of pre-K, with some asserting its benefit in providing academic skills and socialization and others arguing that it is not beneficial to children. This study could lead to positive social change by encouraging public outreach to inform parents better about the benefits of high-quality pre-K programs and ways to increase knowledge of their availability.

Despite positive effects of parent engagement on children's school success, prior research into parent engagement has relied almost exclusively on interactions by mothers and has not included fathers. The purpose of this basic qualitative study was to explore the perspectives of preschool teachers regarding their engagement with fathers of children in their classrooms. The conceptual framework was Epstein's 6 types of parental involvement. Three research questions, regarding teachers' perspectives of father engagement, teachers' reported efforts to increase the engagement of fathers, and the barriers teachers describe in increasing fathers' engagement, form the basis of this study. This was a qualitative study using the interviews of 9 lead preschool teachers with at least 3 years' experience, who work with children 2 to 5 years old. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis following open coding of interview transcripts. Five themes emerged including the teachers' comfort level, communication preferences, limiting center perspectives, limiting teacher perspectives, and fathers' disengagement. Findings indicated that teachers felt uncomfortable with fathers and preferred to communicate with mothers, and father engagement was hampered by limiting assumptions by the center and by teachers, and by fathers' perceived lack of interest. This study presents implications for positive social change by suggesting that individual teachers can increase parent engagement by being more inclusive of fathers, including becoming more comfortable engaging fathers, communicating with fathers directly, and being open to fathers' engagement in a variety of ways. When fathers feel welcome in childcare settings, children benefit because both parents are working on the child's behalf.