This paper examines the changing attitudes of Gallo-Romans from the time of Caesar's conquest in the 50s BCE to the start of Vespasian's reign in 70-71 CE and how Roman prejudice shaped those attitudes. I first examine the conflicted opinions of the Gauls in Caesar's time and how they eventually banded together against him but were defeated. Next, the activities of each Julio-Claudian emperor are examined to see how they impacted Gaul and what the Gallo-Roman response was. Throughout this period there is clear evidence of increased Romanisation amongst the Gauls and the prominence of the region is obvious in imperial policy. This changes with Nero's reign where Vindex's rebellion against the emperor highlights the prejudices still effecting Roman attitudes. This only becomes worse in the rebellion of Civilis the next year. After these revolts, the Gallo-Romans appear to retreat from imperial offices and stick to local affairs, likely as a direct response to Rome's rejection of them.

Augustus was a master of propaganda who employed Ancient and Hellenized Egypt as a means to legitimize his newly acquired power in Rome after the Battle of Actium. This thesis examines the ways in which Augustus moulded the people, imagery and religion of Egypt to suit his political needs. This was accomplished through an examination of the modified imagery of major Egyptian political figures such as Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, and Cleopatra VII. The symbolism of their images was altered to enhance Augustus’ standing in Rome. Augustus’ inspirations were also considered, namely Alexander the Great who became a significant influence for Augustus as was evident through the various similarities in their seal rings, family history, and the nature of both their roles as ‘restorers’ and ‘saviours’. The most predominant source for evidence of Augustus’ use of Egypt was found in his transportation of monumental obelisks from Egypt into the Circus Maximus and the Campus Martius. These monuments served to beautify the city while justifying Augustus’ authority in Rome. A close second to the transportation of the monumental architecture of Egypt was Augustus’ representation of the Battle of Actium upon his coinage. The battle was depicted typically with a tethered crocodile, stalks of wheat, a lituus, and a bareheaded Augustus. These actions augmented the prestige of Rome and presented Augustus as a powerful and reliable leader. In terms of religion, Augustus welcomed the practice of Egyptian cults while protecting the physical presence of Rome’s traditional religious core, the pomerium. This appealed to worshippers of both traditional and foreign cults and further enhanced his favour in Rome. Ultimately, Augustus’ actions served to increase his own prestige and credibility. This allowed Augustus to legitimize the authority of his rule and to initiate the beginnings of a stable Roman empire that would endure through Tiberius’ reign and those to follow.

Michael Scot remains an under-studied figure of the early thirteenth century, in particular with regard to his main original work, the Liber introductorius. This work has never been comprehensively edited, although several partial editions do exist. Scot's translations have received scholarly attention and their importance has been recognized, however, his original work has received a fairly negative assessment from scholars. A close look at one section of the Liber introductorius (Liber quattuor distinctionum, third distinction, CLM fols. 118rb-120ra), although it does conform to what scholars have found in other sections of Scot's work, offers another avenue of study; namely, the social historical aspects of astrology and astrologers in the early thirteenth century. Through his practical instructions to fledgling astrologers in matters such as their house, comportment, and dealings with customers, Scot provides us with a window into the social world of the astrologers of his time.

This paper examines the changing attitudes of Gallo-Romans from the time of Caesar's conquest in the 50s BCE to the start of Vespasian's reign in 70-71 CE and how Roman prejudice shaped those attitudes. I first examine the conflicted opinions of the Gauls in Caesar's time and how they eventually banded together against him but were defeated. Next, the activities of each Julio-Claudian emperor are examined to see how they impacted Gaul and what the Gallo-Roman response was. Throughout this period there is clear evidence of increased Romanisation amongst the Gauls and the prominence of the region is obvious in imperial policy. This changes with Nero's reign where Vindex's rebellion against the emperor highlights the prejudices still effecting Roman attitudes. This only becomes worse in the rebellion of Civilis the next year. After these revolts, the Gallo-Romans appear to retreat from imperial offices and stick to local affairs, likely as a direct response to Rome's rejection of them.

Augustus was a master of propaganda who employed Ancient and Hellenized Egypt as a means to legitimize his newly acquired power in Rome after the Battle of Actium. This thesis examines the ways in which Augustus moulded the people, imagery and religion of Egypt to suit his political needs. This was accomplished through an examination of the modified imagery of major Egyptian political figures such as Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, and Cleopatra VII. The symbolism of their images was altered to enhance Augustus’ standing in Rome. Augustus’ inspirations were also considered, namely Alexander the Great who became a significant influence for Augustus as was evident through the various similarities in their seal rings, family history, and the nature of both their roles as ‘restorers’ and ‘saviours’. The most predominant source for evidence of Augustus’ use of Egypt was found in his transportation of monumental obelisks from Egypt into the Circus Maximus and the Campus Martius. These monuments served to beautify the city while justifying Augustus’ authority in Rome. A close second to the transportation of the monumental architecture of Egypt was Augustus’ representation of the Battle of Actium upon his coinage. The battle was depicted typically with a tethered crocodile, stalks of wheat, a lituus, and a bareheaded Augustus. These actions augmented the prestige of Rome and presented Augustus as a powerful and reliable leader. In terms of religion, Augustus welcomed the practice of Egyptian cults while protecting the physical presence of Rome’s traditional religious core, the pomerium. This appealed to worshippers of both traditional and foreign cults and further enhanced his favour in Rome. Ultimately, Augustus’ actions served to increase his own prestige and credibility. This allowed Augustus to legitimize the authority of his rule and to initiate the beginnings of a stable Roman empire that would endure through Tiberius’ reign and those to follow.

Michael Scot remains an under-studied figure of the early thirteenth century, in particular with regard to his main original work, the Liber introductorius. This work has never been comprehensively edited, although several partial editions do exist. Scot's translations have received scholarly attention and their importance has been recognized, however, his original work has received a fairly negative assessment from scholars. A close look at one section of the Liber introductorius (Liber quattuor distinctionum, third distinction, CLM fols. 118rb-120ra), although it does conform to what scholars have found in other sections of Scot's work, offers another avenue of study; namely, the social historical aspects of astrology and astrologers in the early thirteenth century. Through his practical instructions to fledgling astrologers in matters such as their house, comportment, and dealings with customers, Scot provides us with a window into the social world of the astrologers of his time.

Between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD, there was a rise in inscriptions dedicated to gods given the epithet hypsistos (“most high”). This growth raises questions about the beliefs and composition of the cult or cults that set up these dedications. The answers to these questions shed light on the construction and spread of monotheism in the pagan world as well as the context in which early Christianity spread and attracted followers. Many scholars, from Schürer in 1897 to Mitchell in 2010 have interpreted the Hypsistos inscriptions as evidence of a widespread pagan cult that practiced a syncretic Jewish-pagan religion and worshiped the Jewish god. In this essay, I examine Hypsistos inscriptions from the Bosporan kingdom, Anatolia, and Athens. Where possible, I infer the beliefs of the groups or persons that set up dedication, compare the iconography of the dedications, identify the gods of the inscriptions, often hidden behind a guise of anonymity, and explore the demographic composition of the groups that set up these shrines and dedications. I find that a variety of groups set up dedications to the Most High God, and that hypsistos connotes a number of different meanings. The beliefs of the worshipers that set up these dedications range from pagan polytheism to an extreme henotheism almost indistinguishable from monotheism. In some cases these worshipers may associate themselves with the Jewish religion, in other cases they do not. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA)

This thesis investigates the evidence for Sikel culture in central Sicily from the Bronze Age to the end of the fifth century. Previous scholarship on this period of Sicilian history has focused on the Greeks and their presence on the island; this thesis aims to bring to light the role that the Sikels played in the events of the early Classical period. The present work considers the interdisciplinary body of evidence for the Sikels before, during and after Ducetius’ συντέλεια in the mid-fifth century. The first chapter examines the archaeological evidence for the Sikels before Ducetius’ rise to power in 466 BCE. Continuities in Sikel burial practice and communal dining can be traced from the Bronze Age into the fifth century, and are significant in identifying and understanding the nature of Sikel presence at specific sites in the Sicilian interior. The next chapter focuses on Ducetius’ συντέλεια (466-440 BCE) and investigates the historical accounts of Sicily in the fifth century in conjunction with the archaeological evidence for the Sikels. Ducetius is considered in the context of the rise and fall of the Greek tyrants on the island in the first half of the fifth century. In addition, archaeological evidence at the site of Palikè, an important Sikel religious sanctuary, is examined, in order to highlight the continuity in Sikel religious practices during Ducetius’ remodeling of the sanctuary. This chapter then culminates with a discussion on the geographical extent of the Sikel territory to the death of Ducetius. Finally, the last chapter examines the historical and epigraphic evidence for the Sikels from Ducetius’ death to the rise of Dionysius I in 405. The Sikels remained important actors in Sicilian history in this period, and were considered by the Greeks and Carthaginians to be critical allies, as different groups vied for control on the island. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA) / This thesis considers the political organization and territory of the Sikel people of eastern Sicily from the Archaic period to the end of the fifth century BCE. In 466 BCE, a figure by the name of Ducetius arose and united the Sikels into a federation, or συντέλεια, against the Greek neighbours who inhabited the coasts to the east and south. Of particular consideration in this thesis is continuity and change in Sikel culture and political organization before, during and after Ducetius’ συντέλεια. The aim of this investigation is to demonstrate that the Sikel territory remained a discrete entity from the Greek city-states, and that the Sikels living within this territory both adopted aspects of Greek culture and maintained Sikel practices, into the reign of Dionysius I of Syracuse at the end of the fifth century.

The administration of initiation rites by an ecstatic specialist, now known to western scholarship by the general designation of ‘shaman’, has proven to be one of humanity’s oldest, most widespread, and continuous magico-religious traditions. At the heart of their initiatory rituals lay an ordeal – a metaphysical journey - almost ubiquitously brought on by the effects of a life-changing hallucinogenic drug experience. To guide their initiates, these shaman worked with a repertoire of locally acquired instruments, costumes, dances, and ecstasy-inducing substances. Among past Mediterranean cultures, Semitic and Indo-European, these sorts of initiation rites were vital to society’s spiritual well-being. It was, however, the mystery schools of antiquity – organizations founded upon conserving the secrets of plant-lore, astrology, theurgy and mystical philosophy – which satisfied the role of the shaman in Greco-Roman society. The rites they delivered to the common individual were a form of ritualized ecstasy and they provided an orderly context for religiously-oriented intoxication. In the eastern Mediterranean, these ecstatic cults were most often held in honour of a great mother goddess and her perennially dying-and-rising consort. The goddess’ religious dramas enacted in cultic ritual stressed the importance of fasting, drumming, trance-inducing music, self-mutilation, and a non-alcoholic ritual intoxication. Far and wide the dying consort worshiped by these cults was a god of vegetation, ecstasy, revelation, and salvation; by ingesting his body initiates underwent a profound mystical experience. From what limited information has survived from antiquity, it appears that the rites practiced in the eastern mystery cults were in essence traditional shamanic ordeals remodeled to suit the psychological needs of Mediterranean civilization’s marginalized people. This paper argues that the myths of this vegetable god, so-called ‘the Divine Bridegroom,’ particularly in manifestation of the Phrygian Attis and the Greek Dionysus, is deeply rooted in the life-cycle, cultivation, treatment, consumption of a tree-born hallucinogenic mushroom, Amanita muscaria. The use of this mushroom is alive and well today among Finno-Ugric shaman and this paper explores their practices as one branch of Eurasian shamanism running parallel to, albeit in a different time, the rites of the Phrygian goddess. Using extant literary and linguistic evidence, I compare the initiatory cults long-assimilated into post-agricultural Mediterranean civilization with the hallucinogen-wielding shaman of the Russian steppe, emphasizing them both as facets of a prehistoric and pan-human magico-religious archetype.

Gregory of Nazianzus (ca. AD 330-390) was one of the most learned men of his time and is one of the most important theologians of the early Christian Church. His orations, letters and poetry were widely studied and greatly copied in the Middle Ages. However, there is a lack of modern scholarship on Gregory's poetry, which is why there is such need for this thesis, a study of carm. II 1. 22, with introduction and commentary. The introduction focuses primarily on aspects of carm. II. 1. 22 while outlining the events of Gregory's life and situating the poem within them. The commentary is largely linguistic with autobiographical and historical features discussed and brief mention of theological matters.