The Cradle of Humankind, famous for its abundance of hominid fossils, has been preserved as a pristine landscape throughout the modern era, thanks to the establishment of the site as a natural and cultural World Heritage Site in 1994 (Maropeng 2016). In this dissertation the complexity surrounding a world heritage hominid fossil site is investigated. Kromdraai Cave, one of the five original caves included in the World Heritage declaration on the Cradle of Humankind, is investigated as a point of connection between conflicting values within the world heritage context. Through the intervention the site is envisioned as connecting not only the values of the world heritage site, but also providing an understanding of the landscape as a whole. The site is envisioned as a centre of knowledge, relating the value of the site directly to the context. The distribution of knowledge will allow the heritage to be accessible, not only to the scientist but also to the community. / Die Wiegvan die Mensdom is bekend vir die oorvloed hominied-fossiele wat daar voorkom, en is dwarsdeur die moderne era as 'n ongerepte landskap bewaar, danksy die die feit dat dit in 1994 as 'n natuurlike en kulturele Werelderfenisgebied verklaar is (Maropeng 2016). Hierdie skripsie ondersoek die kompleksiteite wat so 'n hominied-werelderfenisgebied omring. Kromdraai-grot, een van die vyf oorspronklike grotte wat ingesluit is toe Werelderfenisstatus a an die Wieg van die Mensdom toegeken is, word as aansluitingspunt tussen teenstrydige waardes binne 'n werelderfeniskonteks ondersoek. Deur die voorgestelde ingryping word dit moontlik dat die terrein nie aileen 'n verband skep tussen die onderskeie waardes wat 'n werelderfenisgebied verteenwoordig nie, maar dat daar oak 'n beter begrip van die landskap as 'n geheel verskaf word. Die terrein word as 'n kennissentrum beskou, wat sy waarde direk met die konteks in verband bring. Die verspreiding van kennis sal die erfenis toeganklik maak vir nie net wetenskaplikes nie, maar ook vir die gemeenskap. / Mini Dissertation (MArch (Prof))--University of Pretoria, 2016. / Architecture / MArch (Prof) / Unrestricted

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, 2013. / Recent studies of the dental remains from Malapa, a fossil-bearing karstic cave-site located in the Cradle of Humankind (Berger et al., 2010), have demonstrated the presence of dental calculus and associated plant material in the form of phytoliths, preserved on the teeth of Australopithecus sediba (MH1) (Henry et al., 2012). This discovery raised the probability that dental calculus and plant microremains may also be present on hominin material from other cave sites in southern Africa, where fossils are preserved under similar conditions. The aim of this study was to establish the presence of dental calculus and associated microfossils on the teeth of other southern African Plio-Pleistocene early hominins. The dental collection of the Plio-Pleistocene age hominin site of Sterkfontein was examined. Where fossils were observed with adherent material, several analyses were performed to determine whether this material was calculus or not. Where possible, comparisons with the texture of the sediment matrix surrounding the fossil were conducted. Small quantities of this material were removed and observed microscopically to determine if it included food particulates and microfossils. In these cases, we also looked for microfossils in the surrounding matrix as a control. Phytoliths were recovered from all tooth sample material tested. The establishment of phytoliths in the dental calculus is direct evidence that these two structures existed simultaneously, as the formation of calculus can only take place in the presence of saliva. A large number of phytolith morphotypes further indicated that A.africanus had an adaptable and diverse diet, and that monocotyledons and dicotyledons appear to have made up a considerable part of their diet. The results from this study will benefit future analyses, by not only providing new protocols for establishing the presence of dental calculus, but also for promoting better preservation of dental calculus in the future. Further, future studies may be able to obtain direct evidence of consumed food that can directly be associated with individual hominins’ feeding behaviours. This could result in significant clues to the diet and ecology of not only individual hominins, but populations, species and comparisons of diet and behaviour between species and genera.

M.Sc. (Geology) / The Cradle of Humankind is a 47 000 hectare demarcated area with over three dozen fossil-bearing cave sites well known for the preservation of fossil evidence of early hominin taxa such as Australopithecus Africanus, Australopithecus Sediba, Paranthropus Robustus and Early Homo. As a result, a database of precise and accurate chronological data for fossil-bearing cave deposits of the Cradle of Humankind (similar to that for East African fossil sites) is very important, but developing one has proven extremely challenging. The main challenge is that the fossil-bearing deposits at the cradle are mainly complex breccias with a chaotic, localized stratigraphy and no association to any volcanic ash beds, unlike the East African deposits which are lacustrine and fluviatile deposits interbedded with volcanic ash layers. However, substantial success has been obtained recently through the combination of U-Pb dating of CaCO₃ speleothems and palaeomagnetic dating (magnetostratigraphy) after many attempts and unconvincing results from techniques such as biostratigraphic correlations, electron spin resonance on teeth and cosmogenic burial dating of the sediments. The problem with U-Pb dating of CaCO₃ speleothems is that this requires samples that are extremely clean (i.e. detrital-free) and have an appreciable U content (close to 1 ppm), and such material is at many sites not available...

The means in which fossil accumulations in the caves of southern Africa have formed is of great importance. One method of accumulation is via the collecting behaviours of a variety of mammalian species. The core of said behaviour is in the use of caves by these species. This project was designed to give insight to the way that animals in the Cradle of Humankind, South Africa are using caves today. The objective of this research is to give a new understanding to the amount that caves are used by various taxa in South African cave systems, with particular regard to taphonomic agents and potential taphonomic agents. This study was accomplished over a 20-month period by setting up motion sensor cameras outside of cave entrances at the Malapa Nature Reserve. Results have shown that animals use caves at high frequencies, crucial to recognize when examining fossil accumulations.

South Africa is well known for its many, important fossil bearing deposits of Plio-Pleistocene age. Many of these sites contain abundant remains of extinct and extant animals including hominins. Non-herpetological fauna have been used to reconstruct important information about past environments and for chronological data. This study tried a different method; using herpefauna to establish past environments of Cooper’s Cave. Herpetological fauna potentially have numerous advantages in their use for such questions, including typically limited ranging behaviors, and specific temperature requirements. Despite these advantages only a few studies have even mentioned the presence of squamate fauna in the fossil assemblages of these sites. This study has demonstrated that herpefauna exists, in reasonable levels of abundance and with adequate preservation within the fossil record of the dolomitic region now known as the Cradle of Humankind. It has also demonstrated for the first time the presence of a relative abundance of herpefauna at numbers far greater than any previous study has recognized. The present study was however, handicapped in not being able to fully utilize the material at hand to interpret past environments, owing to the lack of comparative material needed to move beyond the family or generic level in most cases with any degree of confidence. However, Agamids and Pseudocordylids were described to generic level. However, the many shortcomings that this work highlighted should not be seen as reason not to pursue the study of herpefauna, but to improve present comparative collections and collecting methods around the fossils themselves.

Subterranean ecosystems are regarded as the most extensive biome on earth, comprising terrestrial and aquatic systems - the latter constituting freshwater, anchialine and marine systems. This system plays a key role in the distribution and storage of freshwater, once it contains 97% of the world’s total liquid freshwater (Chapter 1), which has been progressively explored in quality and amount. Initial observation of the subterranean environment began with speleological studies by the recognition of a typical fauna adapted to live inside caves. The first studies to provide information about aquatic subterranean fauna commenced in Slovenia, with the description of the Proteus aguinus by Laurenti in 1768. After an initial faunal classification by the Danish zoologist Schiödte (1849), the Austrian naturalist Schiner (1854) established the most commonly used classification for cave fauna and a great portion of modern research dealing with ecobilogy of aquatic subterranean fauna has mostly evolved from the European biospeleology (Chapters 1 and 3). Studies in biospeleology have made a significant contribution to the progressive knowledge in aquatic subterranean ecology, especially in those circumstances where the access of the underground through smaller voids (e.g. crevicular spaces) is not possible. Accessibility to the underground environment is in fact a negative factor that has led a large number of studies consider about subterranean fauna initially being limited to caves. Spatial constraint was (and still is) a limiting factor in accessing a diverse range of subsurface habitats, although during the last decade, modern research has been using advance technology as a tool to overcome the physical barriers to subterranean research. For a long time the classification of subterranean aquatic organisms was an unclear subject, with the classification subterranean fauna mostly related to terrestrial cave fauna (troglofauna). The classification system dealing with aquatic subterranean groups (stygofauna) is more recent. A few nomenclature schemes have been proposed to describe these relationships, based on morphological, behavioural, and ecological adaptations of animals to the underground life and their level of relationship with groundwater (Chapter 4). The prefix “stygo” is suggested as the most descriptive to refer ecologically to a group of animals related to groundwater habitats. Groundwater related fauna (stygofauna) is comprised by groups of animals encompassing aquatic surface, intermediate and subterranean habitats. They represent diverse group of animals that have different interactive relationships with the groundwater habitat. Some may transact between surface water and groundwater systems, while others spend the whole life cycle in the subterranean voids (Gibert et al., 1994). This transition zone between surface streams and groundwater is recognized as a critically important boundary or ecotone, constituted by a habitat that contains a reservoir of invertebrate fauna biodiversity. It is therefore from the study of karst systems that most information on groundwater ecobiology is resourced, once the open structure of most karsts terrains promotes a number of caves, streams, crevices, sinkholes, and springs to allow human access. Karst systems are well fractured because of the relation between the rock mass and the action of meteoric water, as well as the dissolution rate of calcium carbonate rocks that high. The latter increases with time, producing a terrain with a great drainage potential (Chapter 2). Once porosity is high and the flow of percolating water is fast, it allows good vagility for subterranean fauna and nutrients, as well as penetration of contaminants. In subterranean karsts, much water saturates some areas inside rock spaces. The saturation in the rock in turn promotes large water pockets, known as aquifers. When these groundwater aquifers are found to be interconnecting with the adjacent ecosystems, they became active eco-hydrological components, due to their key participation in the surface-groundwater continuum. Groundwater has different degrees of importance, depending on the available sources of surface water. In many countries it supplies a significant proportion of urban and rural drinking water, industrial, and agricultural. Yet, groundwater systems are “hidden”, difficult in access and to study (Chapter 4, 5 and 7), consequently the recognition of the groundwater aquifer as a natural resource that needs to be protected is largely ignored. Moreover, studies in the ecobiology and distribution of stygobitic invertebrates (Chapter 5), and the need to identify a frame of methods for quality assessment and the suitability of groundwater invertebrates as bioindicative elements, has not been developed (Chapter 6). Finally, strong management and public education programs are required to emphasize the need for a better understanding of the nature of groundwater resources, their participation and complexity (Chapter 8), with the conceptualization of the groundwater aquifer integrity as an ecosystem still receiving little attention in South Africa. / Dr. J.F. Durand Prof. G.J. Steyn

The natural vegetation of the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site (COH WHS) was classified using Braun-blanquet methodology. This identified 22 distinct plant communities and 2 variants. Sampling took place over two growing seasons with a total of 91 releves being compiled. A stratified random approach to sampling used Land Types as a means of primary area stratification, with terrain position providing the means for further refinement. The grassland comprised of 12 plant communities and 2 variants and the woodland comprised of 10 plant communities. The classification of the woodland areas included some bush clumps associated with the entrances of caves which were also described independently in which seven distinct plant communities were identified A positive linear correlation exists between the size of the cave entrances and the extent to which the surrounding woody vegetation extends. This suggests the likelihood of cave entrance size influencing the surrounding vegetation. / Environmental Sciences / M. Tech. (Nature Conservation)

The natural vegetation of the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site (COH WHS) was classified using Braun-blanquet methodology. This identified 22 distinct plant communities and 2 variants. Sampling took place over two growing seasons with a total of 91 releves being compiled. A stratified random approach to sampling used Land Types as a means of primary area stratification, with terrain position providing the means for further refinement. The grassland comprised of 12 plant communities and 2 variants and the woodland comprised of 10 plant communities. The classification of the woodland areas included some bush clumps associated with the entrances of caves which were also described independently in which seven distinct plant communities were identified A positive linear correlation exists between the size of the cave entrances and the extent to which the surrounding woody vegetation extends. This suggests the likelihood of cave entrance size influencing the surrounding vegetation. / Environmental Sciences / M. Tech. (Nature Conservation)

M.Sc. / The grassland biome of South Africa harbours rich ecosystem diversity. Some of the distinctive features of grassland biodiversity in South Africa include globally significant centres of plant endemism, half of the country's endemic mammal species, a third of its endangered butterfly species and 10 of 14 of its globally threatened bird species. Grassland is one of the most inadequately maintained biomes in Southern Africa because 23% is under cultivation, 60% is irreversibly transformed and most of the remaining natural area is used as rangeland for livestock. Only 2% of the grassland biome is currently protected. Grasslands provide essential ecosystem services for economic development, but this biome also supports a large human population whose resource demands have serious environmental implications that threaten the grasslands‘ biodiversity. Urbanisation is possibly one of the major immediate threats to the grassland ecology in South Africa. This is also the case in the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site (COHWHS) and adjacent areas. New housing complexes and informal housing are encroaching on the COHWHS. Indigenous fauna and flora are being affected by ecologically insensitive urban development. This poses a major threat to the fauna of this region including the insects that occur in grassland habitats. The insects play a vital role as pollinators in grassland habitats and form an essential food source to a range of predators, including grass owls, shrews, bull frogs, lizards and bats. In order to conserve the insects and therefore the food web of which they form part, it is necessary to understand the diversity of the insects in the grassland in the dolomitic areas. The COHWHS is a world renowned heritage site devoted to the origin of humankind and is characterised by dolomitic caves. These caves are also the home of a large population of bats consisting of several species. The negative impact on the grasslands in the COHWHS and surroundings pose a threat to the survival of these bat populations if the food source they depend on is negatively affected. For this reason it is important to determine which flying nocturnal insect species are available in the grasslands surrounding bat roosts in the COHWHS and surroundings. 3 The choice of location for the primary trap site was made on the basis of its proximity to known bat roosts and the fact that it is situated in a nature reserve that, although the river is polluted, contains an otherwise relatively unspoilt grassland habitat. Sampling took place over a period of 14 months during which fluctuations in the insect population was observed. The fluctuations can be ascribed to seasonal climate changes and the three veld fires that occurred during this period. This fluctuation was most evident in the representatives of the Orders Lepidoptera and Coleoptera sampled.