This mini-dissertation contains the results of research to establish a[1 economic value for the mangroves of the Mngazana Estuary in the Eastern Cape. The research is presented in two parts. Component A comprises the literature review and also describes the scope and context for the study, its purpose and the proposed methodology. Component B presents the results of the research in the format of an article to be submitted for publication to the African Journal of Marine Science. Estuaries and mangroves are among the most threatened habitats in South Africa, with the third largest mangrove forest in South Africa at the Mngazana Estuary on the Wild Coast of the Eastern Cape gradually reducing in size. A lack of appreciation of their value has resulted in policies and decisions that promoted the conversion of estuary and mangrove ecosystems to alternative uses, and caused a large-scale loss of mangroves throughout the world. Apart from their key ecological role, the Mngazana Estuary mangroves provide important benefits to the 645 households in three villages that utilise the resources and the sustainable use and management of the mangroves is essential. Economic valuation ascribes values to traded and untraded environmental resources and is a tool that supports policy formulation and decision-making on sustainable management of resources like mangroves. The theory of total economic value provides the conceptual framework for estimating the economic value, but constraints limited this study to estimating the socio-economically significant benefits the mangroves bestow on the communities around the Mngazana Estuary. Using information collected in a household survey and focus group discussions, market-price methods were used to estimate the value of mangroves harvested for building materials and the subsistence consumption of fish by the communities. Values were estimated for mangrove-dependent canoe trails and honey production operations, while a recreational use value was estimated on the basis of travel costs and expenses incurred by visitors to the holiday cottages adjacent to the estuary. The results were incorporated in 20-year valuation models with the net annual benefits then discounted to present value terms. Sensitivity analysis was performed to estimate lower-bound, upper-bound and most-likely values for the benefits. The minimum economic value of the mangroves was estimated to be between R1.1 and R13.6 million, with a most-likely value at a real 5% discount rate of R7.4 million. This study has shown that policies for managing environmental resources must be ecologically, socially and economically sound. This requires an integrated approach to address the socio-economic needs of local communities while safe-guarding environmental resources. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

Natural resource harvesting still plays an important role in the economy of southern Africa. In Mozambique, the continuous exploitation of the most valuable components of the indigenous woodlands in locations such as the Catuane Administrative Post in Matutuine District, have put pressure on the natural resources so that concern has motivated this research in order to guide such actions in support of sustainable use. This was a preliminary study, the intention being to establish: • what are the necessary environmental conditions for the sustainability of silviculture? • which species may be candidates for cultivation? • whether local people would support cultivation of trees for charcoal and woodfuel; and • what the attitude of government and non-government organizations was to tree cultivation.? The research approach taken in this study was qualitative, relying on interviews, reviewing literature and documentary analysis. Respondents were drawn from different categories such as the local communities of the study area, experts in silviculture, government officials and NGO employees. The study shows that environmental conditions are harsh and are not particularly favourable for the cultivation of trees. Nevertheless, a review of information on the requirements and properties of woody species indicates that there . are candidate species that could be considered for cultivation, but productivity is likely to be low. Although there is some support for cultivation of trees, motivation is weak and strong extension support will be required to achieve success. The findings show, however that whilst there is policy support it is not accompanied by support on the ground. It is suggested that this reflects failure to appreciate the value of co-operative management and suggestions are made as to how these can be improved. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

This paper reviews environmental impact assessment (EIA) policy and practice in Eritrea against a set of evaluation criteria. These include: institutional aspects of the EIA system (policy development, legal basis for EIA, institutional strength and responsibilities for EIA administration, and resources adequacy); the EIA process (screening, scoping, EIA study, documentation, review, decision-making, and monitoring and auditing); and other features of the EIA system (coverage, consideration of alternatives, public consultation and participation, system monitoring, the cost and benefit of EIA system and strategic environmental assessment (SEA)). To assess the extent of EIA practice, the EIA report review criteria developed by the Impact Assessment Unit (IAD) of Oxford Brookes University were used to review case studies of two sectoral EIA reports: the Massawa International Airport Project and the Keren Water Supply Project. Additionally, a literature review was undertaken and interviews with different stakeholders were conducted to collect the required information. The review indicated that, in principle and at a policy level, the current EIA system in Eritrea meets ten of the 17 evaluation criteria, partially meets three and fails to meet four. The major weakness relates to the legal provisions for EIA;. adequacy of resources (human and environmental data/information); centrality of EIA findings in decision making; and the formal provision for SEA for programmes, plans and policies. In practice, however, the overall EIA system in the country is weakly established. Thus, to strengthen the current EIA system in the country increased environmental awareness, continuous training in EIA for government officials, consultants, and research and educational institutions is required. Most importantly, revision and subsequent proclamation of the draft legislation is required to provide a sound legal basis for EIA in Eritrea. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, 2003.

Traditional approaches to policy analysis focus on the outcomes of environmental policy making and the relationship between the state and general public in the policy process. These approaches often overlook the policy process itself and the role of professionals, such as environmental consultants, as they are appointed by government to undertake work on behalf of the state. Environmental consultants are commissioned to work on projects, such as a Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEAs), in South Africa because of the complexity of the policy process and lack of capacity in government, especially at the local level. Although the local level is seen as the platform for reconstruction and development, service delivery, and economic growth in South Africa, local government faces several challenges in terms of individual, institutional, and environmental capacity constraints. These challenges create a situation in which there is not sufficient capacity to develop effective environmental policies. In the context of these capacity constraints, the state relies on the skills and experience of environmental consultants to manage the environmental policy process. The aim of this research is to use a discourse analysis of the KwaDukuza and Rustenburg SEAs to understand the role of environmental consultants in the policy processes which inform municipal environmental decision making. The focus of this research is to interpret the role of environmental consultants and to understand the environmental policy process within the context of the challenges facing local government. In order to achieve this aim, the research focuses on two dimensions of environmental policy making. The first dimension of policy making examines the discursive concepts actors use within the new discursive spaces emerging at the local government level. The second dimension of policy making analyses the discursive spaces in which the environmental policy process plays out. The empirical analysis of the KwaDukuza and Rustenburg SEA policy processes are used to understand the environmental policy process and examine the role of consultants within emerging deliberative policy making processes. Evidence collected from the interpretation of the KwaDukuza and Rustenburg SEAs show that several discursive concepts emerged during the SEA policy processes. The concepts included an ‘ecological modernization’ discourse, story lines such as ‘balance brown and green issues’, and policy vocabularies such as an ‘environmental’ policy vocabulary. The concepts were found to be instrumental in the way actors define, interpret, and determine legitimate solutions to particular environmental problems. The three SEAs were also interpreted as a performance using four concepts; scripting, staging, setting, and performances. The evidence shows that these concepts can be used to understand the way actors position themselves and exert power in the policy process. The key finding of this research is that environmental consultants play an influential role in the policy process due to a lack of capacity in local government on complex projects, i.e. a SEA. The role of environmental consultants in these policy processes to manage the process and produce the policy document. The consultants are responsible integrating existing data, specialists’ reports and issues from the public participation process into the policy. Environmental consultants therefore strongly influence the discourses which frame the policies that ultimately inform and guide municipal environmental decision making. Although the evidence indicates that environmental consultants are appointed to undertake the majority of the work, the public officials play an important role in steering the project and ensuring that the policy includes government issues, aligns with existing policies and plans, and is what the municipality needs. The public officials are therefore not only influenced by the discourses of the environmental consultants, but the imperatives, such as economic growth, of the local, provincial, and national spheres of government. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2008.

The environmental factors affecting wood property formation of Eucalyptus spp. trees in two distinct geographic areas within South Africa were studied. Wood prop~rty data for trees from 43 sites (26 in Zululand and 17 in Mpumalanga) were collected from work conducted at the Forest and Forest Products Research Centre (FFPRC) at the CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) in Durban. The wood properties considered included screened pulp yield, fibre length, wood density and active alkali chemical consumption during pulping. The effect of environmental factors on growth rate (expressed as Site Index at a base age of 5 years) was also measured. A detailed site description for each forest compartment was carried out. Detailed annual and monthly rainfall and minimum and maximum temperature estimates were calculated for each site by interpolating long term means of these variables by splining using the software package Anusplin. These estimates of climatic factors were validated by comparison to the data published in the South African Atlas of Agrohydrology and -Climatology. The outputs of the Anusplin model were used to derive surrogate bioclimatic parameters for each site using the computer program Bioclim. These parameters are considered as better descriptors of the energy-water balance experienced by the plant than normal measures of climate such as mean monthly or annual precipitation. Soil characteristics were measured on samples taken from the individual sites. The effects of these environmental and bioclimatic variables on wood properties were analysed using appropriate statistical techniques. Multiple regression models were used to predict wood properties and it is suggested that this approach could form part of a fibre management system. Wood property prediction models incorporating climate (and bioclimate) alone were preferred to those including soil data as no further site data are required. The effect of edaphic factors was considered to describe any further variation not accounted for by bioclimate alone. Particle size distribution of the soil, as an indication of the water holding capacity of that soil, was not found to effect wood properties or growth significantly. A weak influence of organic matter content in the topsoil on wood density was noted in Mpumalanga. In Zululand, a multiple linear regression using both rainfall of the wettest quarter and mean diurnal temperature range as inputs yielded the best predictive model for growth rate. In this region a combination of precipitation seasonality and mean diurnal temperature range gave the best linear regressi'o,n model describing variation in screened pUlp' yield and fibre length. In Mpumalanga effective rooting depth was found to have a pervasive effect on plant development. Solar radiation (as a measure of energy supply), calculated from a function of latitude, aspect, slope and time of year, was also found to significantly affect the growth rate and SPY of plant material in Mpumalanga. Measures of temperature in both geographic regions were found to significantly affect wood density. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

Since 1994, there have been sweeping changes made to South African policy and legislation, including environmental rights for all people, environmental protection and the consideration of sustainability in all activities. A national policy for medical waste management is being developed and guidelines for the South African Veterinary Council are currently being revised. By auditing contemporary veterinary waste management in one of South Africa's largest cities, this study sought to provide appropriate input into these initiatives. As a study area, the Durban Unicity provided the opportunity to audit a large population of veterinary clinics within a relatively short distance of each other arid also the opportunity to ascertain whether waste management practices were dependent on the socio-economic status of the clinics catchment area. A pilot study was used to inform the design of a questionnaire, which was then administered to thirty-two clinics sampled to represent a range in size of clinic, predominant type of patient treated and catchment socio-economic status. Another questionnaire was administered to four waste disposal companies and one veterinary diagnostics laboratory that removed waste for disposal from veterinary practices. The main findings suggest that there is a health risk to staff and the public, due to the incorrect separation, storage, handling and disposal of sharps, anatomical, contaminated domestic and infectious material. Staff at 6.3% of clinics sampled are not provided with any safety equipment. Most veterinarians (63%) as well as two of the five waste disposal companies audited were not aware of their responsibilities in terms of waste management policy and legislation. Sixty nine percent of the practices sampled reported that employees have either never been trained or have not received training in waste management in the past five years. Domestic waste contaminated with other potentially hazardous waste forms 12% of the total waste stream reported by practices. Even though the results indicate that a, few veterinary practices are mismanaging their waste this has the potential negative impact on staff, the public and the environment. The findings of the study would suggest a need for well communicated, enforceable guidelines outlining sustainable veterinary waste management for practices and waste disposal companies. The study highlights the similarities between veterinary and medical waste and the need to consider this in planning an effective waste management strategy. It also provides guidelines for a sustainable approach to veterinary waste management. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

Agriculture contributes about 70 percent of Malawi's Gross Domestic Product and sustains the livelihood of over 85 percent of the rural population. Soil erosion, which has reached alarming proportions, is threatening this resource base. Despite being rated the most serious environmental problem, soil erosion research lags behind in the listing of agricultural research priorities, particularly with regard to factors influencing the implementation of soil conservation policy and legislation. This study aimed to assess the impact of such policy implementation on smallholder farmer soil conservation practices. A postal, self administered, structured questionnaire was used to interview twenty-three farmers and fourteen agricultural extension staff members. The questions were designed to assess the influence of their perceptions of soil erosion as a problem and its causes. They also sought to assess how effectively relevant policy had been implemented before and after independence. Socio-economic information was additionally elicited from the farmers. After preliminary analysis of these questionnaires, ten days was spent in the field verifying data collected. A Spearman's Rank correlation analysis at 95 percent confidence level was carried out between various components of the farmers' socioeconomic profile data and their responses to the perception questions. Perceptions regarding different aspects of soil erosion and conservation were found to be influenced by the sex, age and educational level of respondents. The study revealed that both farmers and extension staff perceived soil erosion as a problem, had a sound knowledge of the mechanics of the process and attributed it to anthropogenic factors. While both farmers and extension staff attributed declining yields and fertility to accelerated soil erosion, they appeared to have difficulty in identifying physical indicators of such activity in the field. The study also revealed that both believed the top-down approach of the pre-independence period and the post-independence to 1990 period, had been partially effective. Since 1990, policy implementation has become more effective as a result of a more democratic governance and increased extension staff awareness of sustainability concepts which stress the need to incorporate the aspirations of farmers in a bottom-up implementation. This awareness led to the formulation of a new soil and water conservation policy in 1996 which ensures the voices of decision makers are taken into account in policy review. Once legislated, this policy bodes well for further improvements in soil conservation efforts in Malawi. However, the study also revealed that effective implementation of this policy will be dependent on the government providing adequate support and skills to both extension staff and farmers. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

Tourism is the world's largest earner of foreign currency. It brings an estimated R20 billion a year into the South African economy, second only to the manufacturing and mining industry in its contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). An estimated 1.7 million overseas and African tourists visited South Africa in 1999. Of the 1.7 million approximately 500 000 or 30% of these tourists visited KwazuluNatal. Forty seven percent of the foreign tourists visited the Zululand and Maputaland area, which falls within a malaria transmission zone. An estimated 8 million domestic tourists from outside or within this province travelled to one or more destinations within KwaZulu-Natal on an annual basis. The Lubombo Spatial Development Initiative is a tri-Iateral initiative between the governments of Swaziland, Mozambique and South Africa to develop the Lubombo region into a globally competitive economic zone. The geographical area targeted by this initiative is broadly defined as eastem Swaziland, southem Mozambique and north-eastem KwaZulu-Natal. Accelerated development with regards to agriculture and tourism is the main objective of the Lubombo Spatial Development Initiative (LSD!). The Lubombo corridor has the potential to develop into an intemational tourist destination but malaria is hampering the growth and development of the region. Perceived malaria risk by tourists is believed to be an important factor that has a negative influence on the tourism industry in the study area. The risk factor, as defined in this study, is the possibility of contracting malaria whilst visiting a tourism facility in the area. It is therefore essential to understand perceptions relating to malaria and malaria risk in the LSDI area. Malaria control plays a pivotal role in the Lubombo Spatial Development Initiative (LSD!). The objective of the malaria control component of the LSDI is to put in place a malaria control programme that will protect the economic interest of the Lubombo Spatial Development Initiative (LSD!) and stimulate development. Malaria control activities have been taking place in the three countries since 1999. Residual house spraying is the method used to control malaria in the Lubombo corridor. Major reductions in both malaria cases and parasite prevalence have been recorded. Swaziland's malaria incidence reduced by 64%, South Africa's malaria incidence plummeted by a staggering 76% and Mozambique saw a parasite prevalence reduction of40% in the first year of residual house spraying in 1999. This study focuses on the scientific study of malaria incidence and distribution as well as on both tourists and tourism operator's perceptions of malaria risk. It considers the factors that drive people's perceptions of risk and investigates how tourists and tourism operators respond to malaria risk. It draws conclusions about how malaria impacts on tourism in the LSDI and recommends how malaria control can play a positive role in tourism development in the area. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

Low-income communities are potentially more vulnerable to physical, social and environmental hazards than wealthier communities. The lack of services associated with these communities (such as water supply, sanitation facilities and electrification) has increased the exposure of households to health hazards. These households also lack the coping mechanisms and resources to deal with the stress that these hazards impose on them. This study is concerned with the potential health hazards imposed from indoor air pollution. Traditional health risk assessments are used to determine the level of risk to human health from a variety of chemical or biological hazards. What these assessments do not include however, is a measure of the vulnerability of the household. The aim of this study therefore, was to develop a methodology for generating a vulnerability index for the inclusion of factors underlying urban poverty and vulnerability into a risk assessment of indoor air pollution. The approach adopted in this study followed an iterative and inductive pathway. Theories on risk assessment and urban vulnerability were explored in order to understand the manner in which risk to human health is assessed and compounded by vulnerability. Secondary data sources as well as a household survey provided information that aided the selection of a number of vulnerability indicators. These indicators were chosen as measures of vulnerability specifically for low-income households in South African settlements. The findings of the research show that there are a number of factors or issues which underlie vulnerability. The issues are related to demographics, livelihoods, physical exposures, externalities, services and general health. This study used a four-tiered selection approach to sift through the issues of vulnerability and to transform the key issues into a set of vulnerability indicators which make up the vulnerability index. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

Ratoon stunting disease (RSD), caused by the bacterium Leifsonia xyli subsp xyli, is well established in most sugarcane growing regions of the world and is considered to cause more yield losses worldwide than any other sugarcane disease (Hughes, 1974). In South Africa, field trials have demonstrated that yield reductions under rainfed conditions can exceed 40% in highly susceptible varieties (Bailey and Bechet, 1986). When cane is grown under irrigation, yield losses are less noticeable but still significant in many varieties (Bailey and Bechet, 1995). It is estimated that RSD currently results in a one percent reduction in industrial production in South Africa and between 10 and 20% in other African countries where South African varieties are grown (Bailey and McFarlane, 1999; Rutherford et al., 2003). For many years, the reaction of different sugarcane varieties to RSD has been based on large, replicated yield loss trials grown over a number of years under rainfed and irrigated conditions. Although these trials provide valuable information, they are time-consuming and require large areas of uniform land. They are therefore not suitable for incorporation into a routine disease screening programme in which large numbers of genotypes are assessed for their reactions to the important diseases occurring in the industry. As a result, the susceptibility of new commercial varieties to RSD is only known several years after release to the growers. The main objective of this study was to establish a suitable method to reliably evaluate sugarcane genotypes for RSD resistance as part of the plant breeding and selection programme. Emphasis was placed on the use of the tissue blot immunoassay (TBlA) developed by Harrison and Davis (1988) and modified by Davis et al (1994), in relation to the more traditional methods of variety assessment, such as the rate of spread of RSD in the field at harvest and yield loss trials. Although the immunoassay protocol was not altered, slight modifications to the blotting procedure resulted in clearer blots that were easier to interpret. Internode position and the age of the cane were shown to have a marked effect on the extent of colonisation and ultimately the RSD resistance rating. A trial investigating the effect of the extent of colonisation on the rate of spread of RSD at harvest was conducted and showed that the relationship between spread and colonisation was highly significant. This indicated that RSD spread more rapidly through varieties such as N14 and N22 that supported high populations of L. xyli subsp xyli. The control plots in the same trial provided useful information on the extent of colonisation in the twelve varieties planted. In another trial, the effect of RSD on the yield components of six commercially grown varieties was investigated and TBIA was also conducted to compare the two methods of variety assessment. The relationship between yield loss and the extent of colonisation was significant in both the plant and first ratoon crops. TBIA produced consistent results and the ranking of the six varieties was virtually identical, despite the different growing conditions during the two crop cycles. In an attempt to screen large numbers of genotypes under controlled glasshouse conditions, .TBIA was also tested on RSD-infected sugarcane transplants (seedlings). The results of this trial were variable and could not be reliably used as a screening tool. Based on the findings of this study, TBIA has now been adopted as a quicker and cheaper alternative to immunofluorescence microscopy for diagnosing RSD in sugarcane transplants. More importantly, TBIA has been accepted as a method of screening genotypes routinely for resistance to RSD and the first screening trial was planted in November 2002. It will now be possible to inform sugarcane growers of the RSD status of the new varieties as they are released, enabling them to make more informed decisions on how to manage each variety. This information will also be valuable when selecting parents in the crossing programme, with a long term view of improving the general resistance of commercially grown varieties to RSD. This should ultimately result in a substantial reduction in RSD levels in the industry. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.