Teachers play a crucial role in the academic success of their students. As such, there is great interest in how teachers are prepared for their important position. The purpose of this study was to document pre-service teachers' knowledge and application of effective instruction as it related to early literacy. The theoretical framework, How People Learn, was used to define effective instruction, design the university course, and analyze the data. Literature pertaining to teacher education, reading instruction, and early childhood education was reviewed in order to inform this study. Thirty-one, early childhood education majors, enrolled in an early literacy course participated in this study. Using a qualitative, case study research design multiple forms of data were collected and analyzed. The researcher was also the instructor of the course offering a unique perspective. The findings reveal pre-service teachers know and apply essential components of effective instruction and attribute their increase in knowledge to the group presentations, field experience, and student tutoring. The findings suggest that the pre-service teachers in this study know more than has been previously documented, well planned cooperative learning can be viewed as beneficial by pre-service teachers, and the pre-service teachers in this study understand and can use explicit instruction. This case study does not attempt to generalize the findings to other samples, rather offers a reader a rich description of a course that may be transferred to other settings. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Teacher Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2011. / September 26, 2011. / early childhood education, literacy education, teacher education / Includes bibliographical references. / Stephanie Dent Al Otaiba, Professor Directing Dissertation; Leigh Edwards, University Representative; Ithel Jones, Committee Member; Vickie Lake, Committee Member; Shelbie Witte, Committee Member.

This study examined the determinants of parenting behaviors and recognized the change or stability in parenting behaviors within and across early childhood. To this end the study investigated the stability and change in parenting behaviors across early childhood and its impact on the growth of young children's cognitive development and subsequent readiness for school. Furthermore, the longitudinal reciprocal associations between parent behaviors and children's cognitive development were explored. Finally, the effects of parenting behaviors and cognitive development on school readiness were investigated within the full model, which includes multiple determinants of parenting behaviors. Data for the study were collected from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort kindergarten 2006/07 database (ECLS-B) conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Data about the same children were collected when they were 9 months, 24 months, and preschool age (about 4 years). Participants included approximately 3,300 children and their parents. Structural equation modeling was used for data analyses. Children's sex and age at each assessment and parent respondents' SES and race/ethnicity were entered as covariates measures in the study model. From the findings, positive parenting behaviors can be explained by three dimensions: sensitivity, cognitive stimulation, and positive regard (or socio-emotional development) when children were 9-and 24-months. The lack of relative stability of positive parenting behaviors during two points in time (9-to 24-months) is confirmed. Parenting is a complex set of behaviors that are influenced by multiple factors, including parent, child, and contextual sources of support for child-rearing. There were unique reciprocal effects between positive parenting and child's cognitive abilities were found at 9-and 24-months, controlling for family SES, mother's race, and child gender and age at each assessment. The effects of positive parenting on a child's cognitive ability can be explained in two different ways over time: a cross-lagged effect (or direct effect) and mediated effect (or indirect effect). In terms of cross-lagged effect (direct path-way), positive parenting at 9-months directly impacted child cognitive abilities at 24-months, it provided evidence that there was the cross-lagged effects between positive parenting and child cognitive abilities. In response to mediated effects (indirect path-way), there were two separate processes. In the first process, increases in positive parenting across 9-months and 24-months predict increases in positive parenting during the same period. Then, this growth predicts the increase in children's cognitive abilities across the same time periods. In the second process, positive parenting at 9-months predicts child cognitive abilities at 9-months. This growth, in turn predicts increases in child cognitive development at 24-months. Implications for future research and practice are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Teacher Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2012. / April 9, 2012. / Child's cognitive development, Early Childhood, Nature of parenting behaviors in early childhood, Parenting Behaviors, Reciprocal association between parenting and child's cognitive abilities / Includes bibliographical references. / Ithel Jones, Professor Directing Dissertation; Ann Mullis, University Representative; Pamela Sissi Carroll, Committee Member; Diana Rice, Committee Member; Young-Suk Kim, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to address the utility of curriculum-based measurements of written expression (CBM-W) for predicting writing growth longitudinally and address the extent to which CBM-W relate to other academic and behavior measures. CBM-W has been shown to be an appropriate and useful method for assessing and monitoring writing skill growth. However, previous research lacks information for how CBM-W scoring procedures might predict writing achievement longitudinally and how CBM-W may relate to other measurable academic or behavior outcomes. Results using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) revealed that when applying CBM-W scoring methods to the simpler task of writing sentences in isolation in third grade, the outcomes significantly predict trait scores for the more complex task of narrative prompt writing in fifth grade. This finding was significant above and beyond the Woodcock-Johnson (WJ) Writing Fluency assessment, a standardized assessment for measuring student's fluency in forming and writing simple sentences. Correlation analyses revealed that CBM-W scores for both third and fifth grade were significantly correlated with reading, vocabulary and behavior measures. CBM-W scoring is a method teachers can use across writing task types and across levels of writing development. In addition, CBM-W scoring can be used for predicting writing achievement longitudinally. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Teacher Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2013. / March 21, 2013. / Assessment, Curriculum-Based Measurement, Elementary School, Writing / Includes bibliographical references. / Christopher Schatschneider, University Representative; Young-Suk Kim, Committee Member; Diana Rice, Committee Member; Stephanie Al’Otaiba, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether possible relationships might exist between the quality of reform-based science instruction and science and reading achievement in second grade. The study also examined separately possible interactions between quality of instruction and gender and race. The study involved an analysis of data previously collected in a larger one-group pre/post test study of a science instructional intervention (ISI Science) (Connor et al., 2010). In the original study, six teachers and two graduate assistants taught two science units designed based upon constructivist principles and reform-based practices. Using the 5-E Learning Cycle (Bybee, 1997), reading and science were integrated into each lesson. Videotapes were made of all lessons and science and reading achievement data were collected. For the current study, dependent achievement variables were science achievement measured by the Iowa Science Test; reading comprehension, by the Woodcock Passage Comprehension; and vocabulary, by the Iowa Vocabulary. Pre- and post-tests scores on the dependent measures were available for 96 children from the original study. Quality of instruction was measured using the Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol (RTOP) (Sawanda & Piburn, 2000). Videotapes of 24 science lessons from the larger study were analyzed using the RTOP. Reliability of ratings for the RTOP in the study was determined to be .96. No significant results were found for relations between instructional quality (RTOP) and any of the achievement variables although significant pre to post increases on all three measures were observed. No differences by race or gender were found. This latter finding was noteworthy given the research in science identifying both gender and race differences in science achievement. Recommendations for future research and teacher education are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Teacher Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 21, 2013. / content area, elementary, reading, reading and science integration, science, student achievement / Includes bibliographical references. / Diana Rice, Professor Directing Dissertation; Robert A. Schwartz, University Representative; Ithel Jones, Committee Member; Angie Davis, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to explore problem solving with kindergarten students. This line of inquiry is highly significant given that Common Core State Standards emphasize deep, conceptual understanding in mathematics as well as problem solving in kindergarten. However, there is little research on problem solving with kindergarten students. This study is one of a few to explore problem solving with kindergarten students. This study explored problem solving with kindergarten children using pencil paper. The study also presents a preliminary scale for assessing students' representation and problem solving. It explored the relationships between students' levels of conservation, representation and problem solving. The data confirmed previous findings that stated kindergarten students can solve a wide variety of problems, including multiplication and division problems and that most students represent number in writing at or below their level of conservation. New findings from this data also suggest that there are levels of representation and problem solving through which students progress. However, problem solving is not a lockstep process through which students progress, rather, it is a complex individual process that combines factors related to the student, the problem and the problem context. This new way of conceptualizing problem solving has several implications that change the way problem solving is frequently taught. Approaching problem solving as a complex interwoven process between these three factors changes the focus to each individual student's construction of logico-mathematical knowledge rather than the transfer of social knowledge from teacher to student. The data suggests that including a conference, like the one used in this study, between all students and the teacher is a crucial part of building the knowledge (mental structures) for all types of students. The instructional method of solving a wide variety of authentic and relevant mathematical word problems using pencil and paper utilized in this study is a viable means of improving students' problem solving proficiency. This study also presents the idea that assessing problem solving is possible using a scale. The preliminary scales created by this study are presented with the invitation that further study will be undertaken to confirm them. The hope is that future studies will continue to document the highly complex and sophisticated nature of problem solving skills that kindergarten students demonstrate when allowed to solve problems using their own strategies. Scales and taxonomies can be used to document these natural processes in the current climate of accountability. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Teacher Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 6, 2013. / kindergarten mathematics, Piaget, word problems / Includes bibliographical references. / Ithel Jones, Professor Directing Dissertation; Judith L. Irvin, University Representative; Kathleen M. Clark, Committee Member; Diana Rice, Committee Member.

The learning of past tenses and aspects in English is difficult for Chinese learners due to the fact that there is no past tense in the Chinese language (Chiswick & Miller, 2004). This difference creates a learning obstacle in Chinese people achieving communicative competence in English, because grammatical competence is an essential component in achieving communicative competence. Communicative competence is the ability to (a) use grammar and vocabulary, (b) speak for longer periods of time yet retains coherence, (c) use and respond to language under certain settings in communication, and (d) repair communication breakdown (Hymes, 1972; Lund, 1996). However, without a sufficient knowledge base of English grammar, Chinese learners find it more difficult to construct the components required in communicative competence, which impedes the English learning and affects the lives of the learners if they live in the country of the target language. According to related studies, the learners have difficulties acquiring particular basic linguistic structures in English, which relatively impedes their development of English proficiency and communicative competence (Chen, 2009; Lim, 2007). Also, as shown on the score of the TOEFL (test of English as a Foreign Language) exanimation in 2012, the Chinese learners scored lower when compared to examinees of other nationalities. The present thesis is a review of pedagogical literature that focuses on constructing a framework of effective instruction, which based on previous studies and theories in the field of foreign and second language education. The focus of this research is on how learners can acquire the ability to use English to locate and describe events in time. Specifically, the study will be on particular tenses and aspects in English. Among the twelve tenses and aspects, the ones to be focused on are simple present, present perfect, simple past, and past perfect. Those target tenses and aspects usually create problems for the Chinese learners, and also often are the last ones to be acquired by most learners. The ways of expressing time in English and Chinese are first introduced and compared, so that positive and negative influences resulting from the differences and similarities between the two languages can be explained. The result from the comparison could be used to track sources of error made in learning in order to develop an accurate instruction that deuces learners more effectively. / A Thesis submitted to the School of Teacher Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 28, 2013. / Chinese, Language teaching, Tense / Includes bibliographical references. / Rebecca Galeano, Professor Directing Thesis; Lawrence Scharmann, Committee Member; Elizabeth Jakubowski, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between coaching provided with bug-in-ear technology, the frequency of the early childhood educators' use of targeted communication strategies and children's expressive communication. Four multiple-baseline single-case design experiments were completed to evaluate these relationships. Social validity data were collected through questionnaires with participating and non-participating early childhood professionals. All data were analyzed individually for each dyad and cumulatively across the four experiments. Bug-in-ear effectively improved the educators' implementation of at least one targeted communication strategy for each educator. Effect sizes were large for three educators and moderate for one. Each behavior successfully implemented during intervention was maintained, at moderate levels or better. Three educators generalized one behavior. Impacts on the children were questionable or small during both intervention and maintenance. The outcomes suggest that bug-in-ear is a socially valid practice that shows promise of effectiveness supporting educators in inclusive early childhood environments. Additional research is necessary to determine the necessary dosage of feedback, characteristics of the feedback content, and strategies for generalization that are most likely to produce positive outcomes for both educators and children. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Teacher Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / May 23, 2013. / Bug-in-Ear, Coaching, Early Intervention, Embedded Interventions, Inclusion, Professional Development / Includes bibliographical references. / Mary Frances Hanline, Professor Directing Dissertation; Juliann Woods, University Representative; Jeanne Wanzek, Committee Member; Sandra Lewis, Committee Member.

The study investigates the effect of the sound system of Turkish on Turkish adult speakers' English pronunciation of words that also exist in Turkish as loanwords from Indo-European language. More specifically, it examines the sounds that speakers of Turkish transfer from their native language when producing these words as well as the accuracy of their pronunciation of selected target words. Eight Turkish doctoral students participated in this study. The data were collected through a questionnaire and an elicitation instrument. The questionnaire gathered information, including the participants' English learning experiences, length of residence in the U.S., and amount of interaction in the target language. The elicitation instrument focused on twenty-one words that Turkish and English share, which the participants were likely to use in their current lives. The participants read 21 words in isolation and in sentences, and their speech was audio-recorded. The recorded data were evaluated by two raters to determine how close their pronunciation of each word was to that of native speakers of English, based on a 5-point scale. Findings revealed that Turkish adult speakers had difficulty producing the English phonemes θ, ð, ɹ, ᶵ, æ. Because these phonemes do not occur in their native language, the participants replaced these sounds with the closest Turkish phonemes t, d, r, t, e. The findings also suggested that the only participant who received an explicit instruction in English phonology and pronunciation did not experience any difficulty with the English specific phonemes. Finally, the participants' pronunciation of the selected target words that are spelled the same in Turkish was more accurate compared to the ones that are spelled differently. / A Thesis submitted to the School of Teacher Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Fall Semester, 2012. / November 2, 2012. / contrastive analysis, L1 phonology, L2 pronunciation, Turkish adult learners of English / Includes bibliographical references. / Mariko Haneda, Professor Directing Thesis; Lawrence C. Scharmann, Committee Member; Rebecca Galeano, Committee Member.

This study explored secondary English Language Arts teachers' experiences using digital technologies in their classrooms, as presented in two key journals in the English Education field: the Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy (JAAL), sponsored by the International Reading Association, and English Journal, sponsored by the National Council of Teachers of English. Specifically, this study examined and analyzed the published narratives of teachers who had written about their experiences integrating digital technologies into their curriculum. These teachers were defined as the "early adopters" of digital technology use in the secondary English Education discipline in that they played an integral role in the diffusion of innovative teaching practices regarding classroom digital technology use through the writing and publishing of their experiences in the field's major journals. This study utilized a textual analysis of the articles published in the two key journals from 2008-2012, a time period selected due to NCTE's formal position on 21st century literacies published in 2008. One issue per journal per year was randomly selected for analysis, as well as any special editions focused on secondary ELA teachers' experiences with digital technology use in the classroom. All articles were coded using an open coding scheme to allow themes to emerge from the data. Next, an inter-coder agreement session consisting of four outside coders was conducted to ensure the researcher's developed coding scheme accurately reflected the data. Furthermore, grounded theory was used to construct a theory of how narratives of teachers' experiences with technology contribute to the diffusion of technological innovations in the 21st century classroom. Four themes emerged from the data in this study: Power Dynamics, Interconnectedness, Shifting Perspectives, and Challenges. These themes illustrated the purposes as well as challenges for secondary ELA teachers' integration of digital technologies into their classrooms. Combined, these themes depicted the current trends regarding secondary ELA teachers' digital technology integration efforts in their classrooms. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Teacher Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2013. / February 25, 2013. / diffusion of innovations, English Language Arts, secondary education, teacher education, technology / Includes bibliographical references. / Shelbie Witte, Professor Directing Dissertation; Melissa Gross, University Representative; Lawrence Scharmann, Committee Member; Kathy Froelich, Committee Member; Pamela Sissi Carroll, Committee Member; Don Latham, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of linguistic knowledge in spelling by analyzing spelling errors made by 220 students in the fourth, fifth, and seventh grades. A 25-word researcher-designed spelling test with considerations of word frequency, word familiarity, and word type (based on morphological complexity) was administered. An error coding system was established based on the Triple Word Form theory. Each misspelling was coded based on its linguistic features and scored cumulatively in 3 categories: Phonological Representation, Orthographic Legality, and Morphological Legality. The error coding system revealed the linguistic profiles of misspellings and allowed the comparisons among subgroups matched on grades, reading, and spelling ability levels. The results of profile analyses supported the Overlapping Waves Model, which advocates that spellers use their phonological, orthographic, and morphological knowledge in spelling simultaneously regardless of age, reading, or spelling levels. On the other hand, the study did not find evidence supporting the stage-specific theory, which defines each stage by observations of the consistent use of one strategy in spelling. The linguistic profiles revealed the competition between Phonological Representation and Orthographic Legality, which provided little evidence supporting the specific phonological deficit hypothesis. On the contrary, the researcher found that the key to becoming an average speller is to be able to effectively apply sufficient phonological knowledge in spelling. For students with poor reading ability, they do not just suffer from limited phonological knowledge but also from the lack of other linguistic knowledge. For any two students with average reading ability, it is the one who can apply sufficient phonological knowledge that benefit in spelling and perform at the level that matches his or her reading ability. Educational implications are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Teacher Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 20, 2013. / Error Coding, Match Design, Morphology, Orthography, Phonology, Spelling / Includes bibliographical references. / Barbara Foorman, Professor Directing Thesis; Christopher Schatschneider, University Representative; Young-Suk Kim, Committee Member; Beth M. Phillips, Committee Member.