Bone repair is modulated by different stimuli. There is evidence that the Transforming Growth Factor-beta (TGF-β) super-family of cytokines have significant effects on bone structure by regulating the replication and differentiation of chondrocytes, osteoblasts and osteoclasts. There is also significant evidence that interactions with extracellular matrix molecules also influence cell behaviour. This study aimed at determining the role of the TGF-βs, Collagen type I, Fibronectin and Laminin in bone cell behaviour. To do this MG63 bone cells were used to examine cell adhesion and alignment to different micro-contact printed ECM protein patterns of different widths. The study also aimed at examining how TGF-β1, 2 and 3 and their solvent and carrier (HCl and BSA, respectively) effected cell surface interactions, cell morphology, cell proliferation and integrin expression. Finally, this study also aimed at examining how the TGF-βs and their solvent and carrier influenced wound closure in an in vitro wound closure model and how TGF-βs influence ECM secretion and integrin expression. 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100μm wide repeat gratings of Collagen type I, Fibronectin and Laminin patterns were stamp patterned onto glass slides and plated with MG63 cells at 50,000 cells per coverslip. Cells on the fibronectin pattern attached and elongated soon after seeding, but did not adhere readily to collagen and laminin and appeared more rounded until 18hrs after seeding. Cells aligned significantly well on the 50μm and 100μm wide fibronectin patterned coverslips with mean angles of alignment ~7.87° ± 3.06SD and 6.45° ± 5.08SD, respectively, compared to those with smaller width (p<0.001). In comparison, cells aligned less readily to the other two ECM proteins, showing optimal alignments of 9.66° ± 4.18SD and 14.36° ± 1.57SD to the 50μm wide collagen and laminin patterns, respectively. Differences in cell length mirrored those of alignment, with cells acquiring the greatest length when showing the greatest degree of alignment. The results indicate that MG63 cells responded significantly better to 50 and 100μm wide fibronectin patterns compared to those with smaller width (p<0.001) indicating that the cells may attach mostly via fibronectin specific integrins. Cell surface attachment was examined via a trypsinisation assay in which the time taken to trypsinise cells from the surface provided a means of assessing the strength of attachment. The results indicated that treatment with the solvent (HCl), TGF-β1, 2 and 3 all decreased cell attachment, but this effect was significantly greater in the case of HCl and TGF-β3 (p<0.001). However, there were significant differences in trypsinisation rates between HCl and TGF-β3 (p<0.001). The wound healing response to the TGF-βs and their solvent/carrier was also investigated in 300μm ± 10-30μm SD wide model wounds induced in fully confluent monolayers of MG63 bone cells. The results indicated that TGF-β3 and HCl significantly enhance wound closure when compared against negative controls, TGF-β1 and TGF-β2 treatment (p<0.001). It was also found that TGF-β1 and TGF-β2 treatment significantly improved wound closure rate in comparison to the controls (p<0.001). Experiments were performed to determine if the HCl effects on wound closure were dose dependent. Cells were incubated with 20μM, 40μM, 80μM and 160μM concentrations of HCl prior to wounding and wound closure rates were recorded. Wound closure was dependent on HCl dose with the 80μM and 160μM concentrations inducing increases in wound closure rates that were both significantly greater than those induced by 20μM, 40μM and control treatments (p<0.001). However, there were significant differences in wound closure between the 80μM and 160μM treatment groups after 30hrs of treatment (p<0.001). The effect of different TGF-β isomers and their combinations on proliferation rate and cell length of human bone cells were also assessed. The results suggest that cell morphology changes were observed significantly more in cells treated with TGF-β(2+3) and TGF-β(1+3) (p<0.001). Any cell treated with TGF-β1, TGF-β(1+2) and TGF-β(1+2+3) showed significantly less elongation compared to the control and other TGF-β isomers. In terms of proliferation rate, TGF-β3 and TGF-β(2+3) increased cell numbers more than TGF-β1, TGF-β2 and other combinations. TGF-β1 and its combinations did not show significant proliferation and attachment compared to the control due to perhaps its inhibitory effect in contact with human bone cells. Immunostaining indicated that treatment with TGF-β3 significantly promoted the secretion of collagen type I and anti-human fibronectin in addition to integrin (α3 and β1) expression. Statistically TGF-β3 and their combinations showed significant differences in number of cells stained for collagen type I, anti-human fibronectin, α3 and β1 integrin. Any cell treated with TGF-β1 or any combination with TGF-β1 showed significantly lower cell number stained with the same proteins and integrins (p<0.001). Imaging with WSPR allowed observation of the focal contacts without the need for immunostaining. WSPR images revealed guided cells with high contrast band like structures at the border of cells distal to the edge of guidance cue to which they aligned and with less concentrically formed band like features across the cell body. It is believed that the high contrast features are associated with the formation of focal contacts on the edge of the cells distal to the edge of fibronectin patterns, which suggests that cell guidance is aided by a decrease in cell attachment along a guidance feature. The WSPR experiments also indicated that TGF-βs influenced the distribution of focal contacts. In the case of TGF-β1 treated cells the bright high contrast regions were intense but only arranged around the periphery of the cell. In TGF-β2 and TGF-β3 cells the bright contrast regions were weaker but again mostly localised around the periphery. These findings supported the earlier trypsinisation results.

The amphibian species Xenopus laevis, along with mouse and chicken is a very important model system, used widely to dissect the molecular intricacies of various aspects of vertebrate development. Study with Xenopus has clear advantages in terms of various technical considerations including the ease of handling early stage of embryos and due to the remarkable documentation of several early molecular events during development. The concept of inductive interactions between various cell types during early development was first revealed by the studies performed in Xenopus, and among the various factors proposed for mesoderm induction, the members of transforming growth factor-β (TGF- β) superfamily have been considered to be the most probable candidates. About forty different members of the TGF-β superfamily have been cloned and characterized from various organisms. The superfamily members like activins and BMPs have been studied extensively with respect to their functional role during development. While BMPs were assigned as candidates for inducing ventral mesoderm, activins oppose the role of BMPs by inducing dorsal mesoderm. Studies that helped in delineating their roles were performed using three approaches that utilized the ligands, receptors or down stream signaling components (Smads). All the three components were studied with respect to their endogenous expression pattern and effects of ectopic expressions of the wild type or dominant negative mutants. These approaches led to the accumulation of evidences supporting the importance of these signaling molecules. All the above mentioned studies were only possible due to the cloning and characterization of cDNAs of the various proteins involved in the signaling pathway including the ligands. TGF-β2 and 5 are the two isoforms of TGF-β cloned from the amphibian system. We have earlier cloned and characterized the promoter for TGF-β5 gene, which suggested possible regulation of this factor by tissue specific transcription factors. Messenger RNA in situ hybridization analysis to study the TGF-β5-expression pattern during Xenopus development, showed spatial and temporal expression pattern. The expression was confined to specific regions that include notochord, somites, and tail bud among others, in the various stages analyzed. This suggested a possible role for TGF-β5 in organogenesis during the amphibian development. To better understand the role of TGF-β in Xenopus development, studies to examine the specific receptor expression pattern for this growth factor is very essential. With the lack of any reports on cloning of TGF-β receptors from this system, the aim of the present study was to isolate and characterize the receptors for TGF-β from Xenopus laevis. PCR cloning using degenerate primers based on the conserved kinase domains of this class of receptors, coupled to library screenings enabled the identification of two novel receptor cDNAs of the TGF-β receptor superfamily. Characterization of the isolated cDNAs suggested that one of them codes for a type II receptor for TGF-β. Further the cDNAs were found to be ubiquitously expressed during development, as judged by RT-PCR analysis. The cloned cDNAs can now be employed as tools, to study the expression pattern by means of mRNA in situ hybridization, on the various developmental stage embryos and to perform studies using antisense and dominant negative mRNA injection experiments in vivo. Such studies will greatly assist in delineating the role of TGF-β ligands and receptors during amphibian development.

[ES] La presente tesis doctoral titulada "New advanced anti-tumor therapies based on hybrid mesoporous nanodevices" se centra en el diseño, síntesis, caracterización y evaluación de nuevos nanodispositivos híbridos orgánico-inorgánicos. En concreto, se han desarrollado nanopartículas de sílice mesoporosas (MSNs) y nanopartículas Janus combinando MSNs con platino y con oro con el objetivo de mejorar los tratamientos anti-tumorales. El primer capítulo es una introducción general que incluye una visión global del contexto en el que se enmarca la investigación realizada. En particular, se incluye información básica sobre los diferentes tipos de nanopartículas empleados en esta tesis doctoral, así como la descripción de la enfermedad del cáncer y la aplicación de los nanomateriales como terapia. A continuación, en el segundo capítulo, se presentan los objetivos generales y específicos de esta tesis doctoral. Los capítulos tercero y cuarto describen dos estrategias terapéuticas basadas en el desarrollo de nanopartículas con movimiento para mejorar la terapia antitumoral. Concretamente, en el primer capítulo experimental se presenta un nanodispositivo autopropulsado para la liberación controlada de fármacos en respuesta al glutatión (GSH) intracelular. Éste se basa en nanopartículas tipo Janus compuestas por sílice mesoporosa y oro, funcionalizadas en la parte del oro con la enzima catalasa, cargadas con doxorrubicina y con cadenas de oligo(etilenglicol) (S-S-PEG) unidas por puentes disulfuro en la cara de la sílice. Una vez sintetizado y caracterizado el dispositivo, se confirmó su movimiento y se demostró el funcionamiento de la puerta molecular. Finalmente, la internalización celular y la liberación de doxorrubicina se estudiaron en cultivos celulares. Motivados por los resultados anteriores, en el cuarto capítulo se describe un nuevo nanomotor diseñado como tratamiento antitumoral y similar al anterior. En este caso, la nanopartícula Janus desarrollada está compuesta por una nanopartícula de sílice mesoporosa junto con una de platino, cargada con doxorrubicina y cubierta con S-S-PEG. Al igual que en el trabajo anterior, se consigue la autopropulsión del dispositivo. Además, se obtuvo el perfil cinético de liberación del cargo en respuesta a estímulos y se confirmó su aplicación en cultivos celulares. Los capítulos cinco y seis se centran en una estrategia terapéutica nueva que consiste en potenciar la acción del sistema inmune sobre el tumor para conseguir su eliminación. En el primero de estos capítulos experimentales, se utilizaron nanopartículas MSNs cargadas con el fármaco JQ-1 y un siRNA frente al factor de crecimiento transformante ßeta (TGF-ß) como inmunoterapia. Una vez sintetizadas y caracterizadas, se confirmó la capacidad de estas nanopartículas para llevar a cabo la liberación de los cargos, junto con la disminución en la expresión de PD-L1 y en la producción de TGF-ß. Por último, se confirmó su aplicabilidad al ser capaces de inducir la eliminación de células de melanoma por el sistema inmune. De acuerdo con el último capítulo experimental, se describe un nuevo enfoque inmunoterapéutico basado en la comunicación química. En este caso, empleamos una nanopartícula Janus de oro y sílice funcionalizada con un péptido llamado pHLIP en la cara de sílice y el anticuerpo contra el receptor PD-1 unido a la cara de oro (J-pHLIP-PD1). La membrana de la célula tumoral es decorada por este nanodispositivo y gracias a la exposición del anticuerpo PD-1, se consiguió atrapar a los linfocitos T circulantes, desencadenando la eliminación de células tumorales por el sistema inmunitario. Además, estos resultados se confirmaron en un modelo metastásico B16-F10-Luc con una reducción de nódulos metastáticos. Finalmente, en el capítulo séptimo y octavo, se aborda la discusión general y las conclusiones derivadas de los estudios experimentales presentados en esta tesis doctoral. / [CA] Aquesta tesi doctoral titulada "New advanced anti-tumor therapies based on hybrid mesoporous nanodevices" se centra en el disseny, síntesi, caracterització i avaluació de nous nanodispositius híbrids orgànic-inorgànics. En concret, s'han desenvolupat nanopartícules de sílice mesoporoses (MSNs) i nanopartícules Janus combinant MSNs amb platí i amb or per al tractament antitumoral. El primer capítol és una introducció general que inclou una visió global del context on s'emmarca la recerca realitzada. En particular, es presenta informació bàsica sobre les nanopartícules emprades en aquesta tesi doctoral, així com la descripció de la malaltia del càncer i l'aplicació dels nanomaterials com a teràpia. A continuació, al segon capítol, es presenten els objectius generals i específics d'aquesta tesi doctoral. Els capítols tercer i quart descriuen dues estratègies terapèutiques basades en el desenvolupmanet de nanopartícules amb moviment per aconseguir una millora de la terapia antitumoral. Concretament, al primer capítol experimental es presenta un nanodispositiu autopropulsat per a l'alliberament controlat de fàrmacs en resposta al glutatió (GSH) intracel·lular. Aquest es basa en nanopartícules tipus Janus compostes per sílice mesoporosa i or, funcionalitzades a la part de l'or amb l'enzim catalasa, carregades amb doxorrubicina i amb cadenes d'oligo(etilenglicol) (SS-PEG) unides per ponts disulfur a la cara de la sílice. Una vegada sintetitzat i caracteritzat el dispositiu, es va confirmar la seua capacitat de moviment i es va demostrar el funcionament correcte de la porta molecular. Finalment, la internalització cel·lular i l'alliberament de doxorrubicina es van estudiar en cultius cel·lulars. Motivats pels resultats anteriors, al quart capítol es descriu un nanomotor nou dissenyat com a tractament antitumoral i similar a l'anterior. En aquest cas, la nanopartícula Janus desenvolupada està composta per una nanopartícula de sílice mesoporosa juntament amb una de platí, carregada amb doxorrubicina i coberta amb S-S-PEG. Igual que en el treball anterior, s'aconsegueix autopropulsió del dispositiu. A més, es va obtenir el perfil cinètic d'alliberament del càrrec en resposta a estímuls i se'n va confirmar l'aplicació en cultius cel·lulars. Els capítols cinc i sis se centren en una estratègia terapèutica nova que consisteix a potenciar l'acció del sistema immune sobre el tumor per aconseguir-ne l'eliminació. Al primer d'aquests capítols experimentals, es van utilitzar nanopartícules MSNs carregades amb el fàrmac JQ-1 i un siRNA davant del factor de creixement transformant ßeta (TGF-ß) com a immunoteràpia. Un cop sintetitzades i caracteritzades, es va confirmar la capacitat d'aquestes nanopartícules per dur a terme l'alliberament dels càrrecs, juntament amb la disminució de l'expressió de PD-L1 i de la producció de TGF-ß. Finalment, se'n va confirmar l'aplicabilitat en ser capaços d'induir l'eliminació de cèl·lules de melanoma pel sistema immune. D'acord amb el darrer capítol experimental, es descriu un nou enfocament immunoterapèutic basat en la comunicació química. En aquest cas, fem servir una nanopartícula Janus d'or i sílice funcionalitzada amb un pèptid anomenat pHLIP a la cara de sílice i l'anticòs contra el receptor PD-1 unit a la cara d'or (J-pHLIP-PD1). La membrana de la cèl·lula tumoral és decorada per aquest nanodispositiu i gràcies a l'exposició de l'anticòs PD-1, es va aconseguir atrapar els limfòcits T circulants, desencadenant l'eliminació de cèl·lules tumorals pel sistema immunitari. A més, aquests resultats es van confirmar en un model metastàtic B16-F10-Luc amb una reducció de nòduls metastàtics. Finalment, al capítol setè i vuitè, s'aborda la discussió general i les conclusions derivades dels estudis experimentals presentats en aquesta tesi doctoral. / [EN] The present PhD thesis entitled "New advanced anti-tumor therapies based on hybrid mesoporous nanodevices" focuses on the design, synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of new hybrid organic-inorganic nanodevices. We have developed mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) and Janus platinum-MSN and gold-MSN nanoparticles for tumor treatment. The first chapter is a general introduction that includes an overview of the context related to the research developed in this thesis. In particular, it includes basic information about different nanoparticles used in this doctoral thesis along with the description of cancer disease characteristics and the application of nanomaterials as therapy. Next, in the second chapter, the general and specific objectives of this Ph.D. thesis are presented. The third and fourth chapters describe two nanotechnology-based therapeutic strategies based on the development of nanomotors to improve cancer therapy. Specifically, the first experimental chapter presents a self-moving nanodevice for controlled drug release in response to intracellular glutathione (GSH). It is based on Janus gold-mesoporous silica nanoparticles functionalized with the enzyme catalase in the gold face, loaded with doxorubicin and capped with disulfide-linked oligo(ethylene glycol) (S-S-PEG) chains on the silica face. Once synthesized and characterized, the nanosystem motion was confirmed and the proper gating mechanism of the nanodevice was proven. Finally, the cellular uptake and doxorubicin release capacity have been demonstrated in cell cultures. Encouraged by the above results, chapter four describes a similar nanomotor design for antitumor therapy. In this case, the nanoparticle developed is composed of a Janus platinum-mesoporous silica nanoparticle, loaded with doxorubicin, and capped with S-S-PEG. As well as in the previous work, self-propulsion of the nanoparticles was achieved. Moreover, the stimuli-responsive cargo release kinetic profile was obtained and its application was confirmed in cell cultures. Chapters five and six focus on a new therapeutic strategy, empowering the immune system action on tumors to reach tumor cell death. In the first of these experimental chapters, JQ-1 and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-ß) siRNA-loaded nanoparticles were used as efficient tumor immunotherapy. Once synthesized and characterized, the efficient cargo delivery was accomplished along with the programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) downregulation and TGF-ß silencing. Lastly, its application was confirmed by triggering a specific immunogenic removal of tumor cells in melanoma cells. In chapter six, the development of a new communication-based immunotherapeutic approach is reported. In this case, we employ Janus gold-MSN functionalized with a peptide called pHLIP onto silica face and anti-PD-1 antibody bound to gold face (J-pHLIP-PD1). Tumor cell membrane is decorated by this nanodevice, leaving exposed on the surface PD-1 antibody which catches circulating T lymphocytes. It triggers immune system-induced-tumor leveling. Moreover, J-pHLIP-PD1 treatment-associated reduction of metastatic burden was also proven. Finally, in the seventh and eighth chapter, the general discussion and conclusions derived from the presented experimental studies of this Ph.D. thesis are exposed. / The authors thank the Spanish Government (Projects MAT2015-64139-C4-1, AGL2015-70235-C2-2-R, CTQ2014-58989-P, CTQ2015-71936-REDT and CTQ2017-87954-P) and the Generalitat Valencia (PROMETEO/2018/024) for support. The Comunidad de Madrid (IND2017/BMD-7642) is also gratefully acknowledged. The authors thank the Spanish Government (project PID2021-126304OB-C41, (MCUI/FEDER, EU)) and the Generalitat Valenciana (project PROMETEO CIPROM/2021/007). E.L-S is grateful for her FPU fellowship funded by MINECO (FPU18/06539). This work was supported by the European Research Council (ERC) via Advanced Grant (101052997, EDISON). This study forms part of the Advanced Materials program (MFA/2022/049) and was supported by MCIN with funding from European Union NextGenerationEU (PRTR-C17.I1) and by Generalitat Valenciana. This work was supported by the European Research Council (ERC) via Advanced Grant (101052997, EDISON) and by CIBER -Consorcio Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red- (CB06/01/2012), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación. / Lucena Sánchez, E. (2024). New advanced anti-tumor therapies based on hybrid mesoporous nanodevices [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/205528