Experiencing interpersonal betrayals or trust violations can often create negative consequences for victims when creating new relationships. Past studies have found that trauma from previous betrayals can impair trust and thereby trust behavior for victims in the future. However, little research has been done to empirically characterize this connection and existing studies have provided conflicting results. The goal of this study was to explore the relationship between past trust violations, measured through the Brief Betrayal Trauma Survey (BBTS), and present self-reported trust and trust behavior. Differences in trust behavior between those with or without a history of betrayals was measured through an experimental economic trust game. Results found that those with a history of betrayal trauma had marginally lowered self-rated trust in strangers. While a history of betrayal trauma did not yield main effects on either first or average investments in the trust game, those with a history of betrayal had similar first and average investments in partners regardless of visual cue trustworthiness. Victims of betrayal seem to lack discriminatory trust behavior or possibly disregard visual cues entirely. These findings add to the current understanding of how victims of interpersonal betrayal interpret and respond to visual cues both initially and across multiple interactions and is especially relevant for those who aim to form close relationships with these individuals such as care providers.

Situações nas quais a compensação financeira pode ser eficaz na recuperação da confiança após o duplo desvio têm sido negligenciadas pela literatura de marketing. O objetivo principal desta dissertação foi identificar situações em que a compensação financeira imediata é mais eficaz do que táticas de recuperação não financeiras (i.e. pedido de desculpas, promessa de não ocorrência de mesma falha no futuro) na restauração da confiança após o duplo desvio. Especificamente, visou examinar a moderação do tipo de violação (se financeira ou não) no efeito de diferentes táticas de recuperação (i.e. pedido de desculpas, promessa de não ocorrência de mesma falha no futuro e compensação financeira) sobre a recuperação da confiança após o duplo desvio; e investigar a mediação das atribuições no efeito da compensação financeira sobre a recuperação da confiança após o duplo desvio. Os resultados encontrados através de dois estudos experimentais realizados com diferentes populações e contextos de serviços indicam que a compensação imediata é mais eficaz do que o pedido de desculpas e a promessa na recuperação da confiança após o desvio duplo somente quando a falha inicial implicou em perda financeira para o cliente. Quando a falha inicial não gera perdas monetárias, todas as três táticas possuem efeitos similares. Além disso, verificou-se que a atribuição de benevolência explica ao menos parte do efeito da compensação monetária sobre a recuperação da confiança na situação de falha monetária. / Situations in which financial compensation may be effective to rebuild trust after a double deviation have been neglected by the marketing literature. The main objective of this thesis was to identify situations in which immediate financial compensation is more effective than non-financial recovery tactics (i.e., apology, promise that the failure will not repeat in the future) in trust restoration after double deviation. It specially aimed to examine the moderation of the type of failure (whether financial or not) in the effect of different recovery tactics (ie apology, promise, and financial compensation) on trust recovery after double deviation; and investigate the mediation of attributions in the effect of financial compensation on trust recovering after the double deviation. The results found, through two experimental studies conducted with different populations and service contexts, indicate that immediate compensation is more effective than apology and promise to repair trust after double deviation only when the initial failure causes a financial loss for the client. When the initial failure does not refer to monetary losses, all three tactics had similar effects. In addition, it has been found that the attribution of benevolence explains at least part of the effect of monetary compensation on trust recovery in the situation of monetary failure.

Situações nas quais a compensação financeira pode ser eficaz na recuperação da confiança após o duplo desvio têm sido negligenciadas pela literatura de marketing. O objetivo principal desta dissertação foi identificar situações em que a compensação financeira imediata é mais eficaz do que táticas de recuperação não financeiras (i.e. pedido de desculpas, promessa de não ocorrência de mesma falha no futuro) na restauração da confiança após o duplo desvio. Especificamente, visou examinar a moderação do tipo de violação (se financeira ou não) no efeito de diferentes táticas de recuperação (i.e. pedido de desculpas, promessa de não ocorrência de mesma falha no futuro e compensação financeira) sobre a recuperação da confiança após o duplo desvio; e investigar a mediação das atribuições no efeito da compensação financeira sobre a recuperação da confiança após o duplo desvio. Os resultados encontrados através de dois estudos experimentais realizados com diferentes populações e contextos de serviços indicam que a compensação imediata é mais eficaz do que o pedido de desculpas e a promessa na recuperação da confiança após o desvio duplo somente quando a falha inicial implicou em perda financeira para o cliente. Quando a falha inicial não gera perdas monetárias, todas as três táticas possuem efeitos similares. Além disso, verificou-se que a atribuição de benevolência explica ao menos parte do efeito da compensação monetária sobre a recuperação da confiança na situação de falha monetária. / Situations in which financial compensation may be effective to rebuild trust after a double deviation have been neglected by the marketing literature. The main objective of this thesis was to identify situations in which immediate financial compensation is more effective than non-financial recovery tactics (i.e., apology, promise that the failure will not repeat in the future) in trust restoration after double deviation. It specially aimed to examine the moderation of the type of failure (whether financial or not) in the effect of different recovery tactics (ie apology, promise, and financial compensation) on trust recovery after double deviation; and investigate the mediation of attributions in the effect of financial compensation on trust recovering after the double deviation. The results found, through two experimental studies conducted with different populations and service contexts, indicate that immediate compensation is more effective than apology and promise to repair trust after double deviation only when the initial failure causes a financial loss for the client. When the initial failure does not refer to monetary losses, all three tactics had similar effects. In addition, it has been found that the attribution of benevolence explains at least part of the effect of monetary compensation on trust recovery in the situation of monetary failure.

Situações nas quais a compensação financeira pode ser eficaz na recuperação da confiança após o duplo desvio têm sido negligenciadas pela literatura de marketing. O objetivo principal desta dissertação foi identificar situações em que a compensação financeira imediata é mais eficaz do que táticas de recuperação não financeiras (i.e. pedido de desculpas, promessa de não ocorrência de mesma falha no futuro) na restauração da confiança após o duplo desvio. Especificamente, visou examinar a moderação do tipo de violação (se financeira ou não) no efeito de diferentes táticas de recuperação (i.e. pedido de desculpas, promessa de não ocorrência de mesma falha no futuro e compensação financeira) sobre a recuperação da confiança após o duplo desvio; e investigar a mediação das atribuições no efeito da compensação financeira sobre a recuperação da confiança após o duplo desvio. Os resultados encontrados através de dois estudos experimentais realizados com diferentes populações e contextos de serviços indicam que a compensação imediata é mais eficaz do que o pedido de desculpas e a promessa na recuperação da confiança após o desvio duplo somente quando a falha inicial implicou em perda financeira para o cliente. Quando a falha inicial não gera perdas monetárias, todas as três táticas possuem efeitos similares. Além disso, verificou-se que a atribuição de benevolência explica ao menos parte do efeito da compensação monetária sobre a recuperação da confiança na situação de falha monetária. / Situations in which financial compensation may be effective to rebuild trust after a double deviation have been neglected by the marketing literature. The main objective of this thesis was to identify situations in which immediate financial compensation is more effective than non-financial recovery tactics (i.e., apology, promise that the failure will not repeat in the future) in trust restoration after double deviation. It specially aimed to examine the moderation of the type of failure (whether financial or not) in the effect of different recovery tactics (ie apology, promise, and financial compensation) on trust recovery after double deviation; and investigate the mediation of attributions in the effect of financial compensation on trust recovering after the double deviation. The results found, through two experimental studies conducted with different populations and service contexts, indicate that immediate compensation is more effective than apology and promise to repair trust after double deviation only when the initial failure causes a financial loss for the client. When the initial failure does not refer to monetary losses, all three tactics had similar effects. In addition, it has been found that the attribution of benevolence explains at least part of the effect of monetary compensation on trust recovery in the situation of monetary failure.

abstract: When consumers find that something critically out of the ordinary has occurred, they direct attention to evaluate such a critical incident more closely. The results of this evaluation may put consumers on a switching path or it might lead them to engage in unfavorable behaviors from the perspective of the organization, such as engaging in negative word-or-mouth online. The negative consequences of some product (goods or services) failures go beyond simple product attribute defects, leading customers to terminate the relationship with the organization. This dissertation, which is composed of three essays, investigates how consumers engage in negative word-of-mouth on social media channels in response to their various product failures and explores an important relationship event of betrayal, which can be triggered by certain product failures. It investigates how betrayal is perceived by customers and influences a range of their behaviors across business-to-consumer and business-to-business contexts. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Business Administration 2019

Across domains, organizations and society are facing a trust deficit (Twenge, Campbell, & Carter, 2014). This is problematic, as trust is important to a variety of critical organizational outcomes, such as perceived task performance, team satisfaction, relationship commitment, and stress mitigation (Costa, Roe, & Taillieu, 2001), and has been cited as a motivator for cooperation and knowledge transfer due to its capacity to reduce fear and risk of exploitation (Chen et al., 1998; Fleig-Palmer & Schoorman, 2011; Irwin & Berigan, 2013; Yamagishi & Sato, 1986), and a key component of collaboration. As organizations increasingly rely upon collaboration for achieving important outcomes, it is of critical importance that organizations understand how to not only develop interpersonal trust in collaborative partnerships to facilitate these positive outcomes, but also the way in which interpersonal trust is broken and can be repaired when problems inevitably arise. Though research has begun to investigate trust violation and trust repair, relatively little is known about trust development, violation, and repair as a process that unfolds over time. This is problematic, as cross-sectional studies fail to capture change, both in terms of how trust itself changes as well as how the effect of a violation or the utility of a repair strategy may be weaker or stronger in the long-term than the short-term. Thus, findings from a single point in time may result in different conclusions and recommendations than those that would result from long-term investigation. Therefore, this study examines how interpersonal trust patterns unfold within individuals, and how these patterns differ between individuals depending on the type of violation and the repair strategy employed. An experimental study using discontinuous growth modeling to examine intraindividual and interindividual differences in trust processes found that generally, trust was negatively impacted more after an intentional ("will do") violation as compared to a competence ("can do") violation, such that it had a greater impact on character assessments than a competence violation and also damaged perceptions of ability as much as a competence violation. These negative impacts carried over into trust restoration, which was significantly slower after an intentional violation than a competence violation. Furthermore, study findings suggest that after an intentional violation, trust restored more quickly when surveillance was implemented than when compensation was offered. Though the opposite did not hold true for a competence violation, the findings did approach significance. Drawing from these findings, implications and future research recommendations are discussed.